660 Psychological Experimentation Addressing Practical Concerns
supervisory management of automated avionics systems,
from computer-controlled artificial stability systems to flight-
management computers (Billings, 1996). The applied psy-
chology questions often concern the relationship between the
aircrew and the automated systems. Does the introduction of
automation actually reduce mental workload? Does it lead to
complacency on the part of the aircrew? Under what condi-
tions does the aircrew establish trust in the automation
(Parasuraman & Riley, 1997)? What are the training implica-
tions of introducing high levels of automation?
Flight training has been a major interest of aviation psy-
chologists from the beginnings of the field; the rapidly chang-
ing technology has brought new challenges to this problem
area as well (Salas, Bowers, & Prince, 1998). The use of sim-
ulation and the part-task approach in the training of piloting
was noted in the preceding section. In recent years there has
been great interest in the study of the training and perfor-
mance of aircrew teams and of individuals as members of
teams (Prince & Salas, 1993; Salas & Cannon-Bowers, 1997).
Interpersonal team factors involving the captain and first offi-
cer, and, when present, the engineer are considered critical
determinants of aviation safety (Helmreich & Foushee,
1993). This concern has led to research by psychologists in
the area that has been calledcockpit resource management,a
goal of which is to help members of aircrews interact with
greater sensitivity and respect for each other without violating
the requisite authority relationships. Commercial airlines
have widely adopted such programs and are showing interest
in applying similar methods in air traffic control, training of
crew operations, and other critical team activities.
Planning is currently underway to introduce advanced
technology and major procedure revisions in the management
of the national airspace by the Federal Aviation Administra-
tion. With research support from the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, researchers are exploring con-
cepts of free flight in which aircrews and airline operations
centers are given more opportunity to select the routes they fly.
The success of such procedural modifications will depend on
how well human factors are taken into account in the develop-
ment and implementation of these plans (Wickens, Mavor, &
McGee, 1997). We can expect continued applied experimental
psychological research in support of these developments.
Highway Safety
Work relating to highway safety has been going on since
the early 1930s, although a special impetus for it was pro-
vided by the establishment of the National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration in 1970. There has been a sustained
interest in research concerning the head and rear lighting of
automobiles; the design, location, coding, and standardiza-
tion of vehicle controls, especially as the number and variety
of secondary controls has increased; the design, location,
coding, and standardization of vehicle displays; driver
performance and its role as a causal or preventive agent for
accidents, and especially the problem of driving under the
influence of alcohol; safety education and driver training
programs; and the effects of aging on driving performance
(Peacock & Karwowski, 1993). Behavioral research led to
the recommendation that rear brake lights be located in a dif-
ferent position than running lights (Crosley & Allen, 1966;
Nickerson, Baron, Collins, & Crothers, 1968) and eventually
to the practice of locating them above the vehicle’s trunk.
Most studies of the effectiveness of the high location have
concluded that it has reduced the incidence of rear-end colli-
sions, but the magnitude of the reduction appears to be con-
siderably less than was originally assumed (Mortimer, 1998).
Much attention has been given to the problem of driving at
night or under generally poor lighting conditions (Leibowitz
& Owens, 1977; Owens & Tyrell, 1999); this attention is
well-deserved in view of the high incidence of traffic fatali-
ties in industrialized countries (Evans, 1991) and the fact that
a large percentage of these fatalities occurs at nighttime
(Owens, Helmers, & Sivak, 1993).
In 1991 two major programs impacting behavioral science
research were initiated. The first was the Intelligent Trans-
portation Systems Program, which includes a number of
initiatives directed at improving traffic flow and traffic man-
agement for commercial and private vehicles. One component
of this program, the Intelligent Vehicle Initiative, aims to ac-
celerate the development and availability of advanced safety
and information systems applied to all types of vehicles. The
goal is to integrate driver assistance and motorist information
functions so that vehicles operate more safely and efficiently.
It includes in-vehicle navigation, traffic advisory, and emer-
gency response functions. There is currently concern about
the best ways to communicate this information to the vehicle
driver. Government contractors and commercial companies
are conducting studies to evaluate alternative approaches,
such as heads-up displays and speech, and the impact on vehi-
cle safety of introducing such systems (Kantowitz, Lee, &
Kantowitz, 1997).
The second notable program is the development of a
major high-fidelity driving simulator, the National Advanced
Driving Simulator, which is intended to be a national asset.
Nearing completion at the University of Iowa, the simulator
will provide an experimental resource, including a scientific
staff of engineers and behavioral scientists, for a wide va-
riety of experimental studies relating to highway safety. It is
expected to be used in both government and commercial