exclude individuals from the United Kingdom. (Although the ultimate power,
that of suspending rule from Belfast and administering the province directly
from London cannot properly be regarded as an emergency power in this
sense.) In France, emergency powers may be exercised under Article 16 of the
1958 constitution (seeFifth Republic) by the president, although the pre-
sident must consult the prime minister, the presidents of the Senate and the
National Assembly, and the Constitutional Council before declaring a state of
emergency. These powers were in fact used only once, during the period April
to September 1961, at the time of the Algerian War of Independence, and this
caused considerable political controversy, especially over the powers which
parliament might continue to exercise. In the USA emergency powers can, and
have, been taken; although the US constitution makes no reference to such
emergency powers, President Abraham Lincoln suspended the right ofhabeas
corpusduring the Civil War, and President Franklin Roosevelt interned
Japanese-Americans during the Second World War, and in neither case was
any problem incurred with the legislature or courts.
In non-democratic countries emergency powers are frequently referred to as
states of siege, and all civil liberties are suspended; one of many examples is the
period following the military coup in Chile in 1973.
Engels
Friedrich Engels (1820–95) was the son of a prosperous German industrialist
whose business interests extended to cotton mills in Manchester, where Engels
spent 20 years of his life and witnessed conditions that greatly influenced his
loathing for capitalism. Although attracted in his youth to the rather vague
romantic radicalism of the Young Hegelians, he realized the vital importance of
economics and began to think of history and philosophy in terms ofmateri-
alismsomewhat earlier than the man who later became his lifelong friend,
KarlMarx. Indeed, Engels introduced Marx to many of the ideas that the latter
made so thoroughly his own. So Engels was not only the great popularizer of
Marxism, but should also be recognized as the originator of much that has
entered the Marxist canon. In particular, Engels was a first-class empirical
observer, and documents such asThe Condition of the Working Class in England
contain brilliant analyses. The most popular and earliest of the great Marxist
writings,The Communist Manifesto, was drafted by Engels and only revised
by Marx. A theoretically more complex work attacking the rest of the
Hegelian movement,The German Ideology, which is the backbone of Marxist
views on social consciousness, was written by Marx and Engels jointly. Late in
his life, mostly after Marx’s death in 1883, Engels became closely involved
with the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and fought a bitter
campaign against therevisionismof its reformist wing. His attack in 1878 on
Engels