politics were largely determined by geographical factors such as land and
resource distribution, sea and waterways and so on. Mackinder popularized his
concept of ‘The Heartland Thesis’ by which powers at the centre of large land
masses were bound to dominate the politics of their region unless peripheral
powers actively coalesced and fought against them. The idea thus proved
attractive to many in Nazi Germany, arguing that the country represented the
relevant heartland of the Eurasian land mass. Such a theory not only seemed to
justify German aggression as somehow or other natural, but it also justified it
on the grounds that the peripheral countries would inevitably join forces
against Germany—it was a version of the long-held German fear of being
overcome by surrounding alliances.
With the rebirth of the idea of Geopolitics, its meaning has become little
more than international strategy, an acknowledgement of the physically
determined strategic needs and problems of major powers, with little or none
of the deterministic undertones of its past usage. Nevertheless, even this more
innocent usage does then act as some sort of justification for internationally
unpopular policies. The USA’s use of the idea has lead to a justification, for
example, of strategic missile forces, (and now, of strategic missile defences) on
the grounds of America’s ‘geopolitical’ position. Similarly, the concept has
been used to defend military policy options internally—from the United
Kingdom’s ‘need’ for a strong navy to America’s ‘need’ for a military structure
capable of fighting two major wars at once. These and other examples can seem
to be easily defended by reference to ‘geopolitical necessity’.
Gerrymandering
Gerrymandering is the deliberate drawing of electoral districts or constitu-
encies—whether at the national or local level—in such a way as to secure a
partisan advantage and to distort the outcome of the election. The term is of
American origin and derives from the name of Elbridge Gerry who, as
Governor of Massachusetts, in 1811 created abnormally shaped constituencies
which looked like salamanders.
It is probable that all democratic systems indulge in some kind of gerry-
mandering, but in most political systems opportunities for the worst excesses
are reduced by placing the electoral districting or redistributing process in the
hands of neutral officials. The machinery varies from country to country, but
however hard most systems have tried there is almost always a point at which
political self-interest can still enter the constituency drawing arrangements. In
the United Kingdom the task of redrawing constituencies is performed by the
Boundary Commissioners, although there are still opportunities for the
government in power to affect the timing of the implementation of any
report. Thus in 1970 the Labour Home Secretary James Callaghan was thought
Gerrymandering