Sufi sm and ‘Popular’ Islam 149Conclusion
The Sufi orders, which seemed to be on the verge of disappearing by the mid-
twentieth century, are alive and well in most parts of the Muslim world today
and are increasingly active in the West as well. The social and demographic
transformations of Muslim societies, and the rise of political Islam and Salafi sm,
have not marginalised Sufi sm (though they may have caused a shift towards
more ‘learned’ varieties of Sufi sm). Rather, Sufi sm as a spiritual doctrine and
practice has gained added attraction to many Muslims in the modern world as
an alternative to the political and puritan styles of Islam.
Summary of chapter
The term ‘Sufi sm’ refers to a wide range of religious phenomena – including doctrines,
devotional practices and forms of association – that revolve around efforts to purify
the soul and that in most cases presume the existence of charismatic personalities
capable of mediating between ordinary humans and the world of spirits and ultimately
God. The most common manifestations of Sufi sm, the Sufi orders (tariqa, pl, turuq),
are voluntary associations with more or less standardised devotions and meditation
techniques, typically led by a chain of charismatic leaders. Various forms of ‘popular’
religiosity – the veneration of saints, ecstasy-inducing techniques, magical practices –
may (but need not) be associated with some of the turuq.
Scholars of various disciplines have commonly assumed that Sufi sm, and especially
the ‘popular’ practices associated with it, would inevitably wither away as society
modernised, because of the twin forces of secularisation and Islamic reform. The most
infl uential conceptual models of religious change in Muslim societies insisted on a shift
from the mystical–magical styles of Sufi sm towards increased scripturalism.
Developments in the last quarter of the twentieth century showed this assumption of
the decline of Sufi sm to be mistaken and suggested that, rather than disappearing, the
forms in which Sufi sm manifested itself changed in response to social and political
dynamics.
In the age of colonial expansion, Sufi orders actually fl ourished and gained a mass
following. On the extent of their actual involvement in anti-colonial resistance,
however, there has been considerable disagreement in recent scholarship. The
apparent decline of the orders in late colonial and post-colonial societies has been
attributed to the emergence of new types of voluntary association that to some extent
replaced Sufi orders, taking over some of their functions.
Various reformist currents in Islam have been fi ercely critical of Sufi sm and
especially of some of the ‘popular’ beliefs and practices they associated with it.
Conversely, many were drawn to Sufi sm because of their dissatisfaction with
Reformists’ legalistic attitude and rejection of local culture. Scripturalism (and
especially its most radical variety, Salafi sm) and Sufi sm have often seemed each
other’s opposites, and been considered as competing trends within mainstream Islam.
However, various forms of accommodation have always existed. Reformist trends
have emerged within Sufi sm as well as in opposition to it. Numerous Sufi s, even
among those known for their charismatic qualities, were also ulama well versed in
scriptural studies. Scripture-based and sharia-oriented brands of Sufi sm have gained