denominator problem’ since this is what the designer must do – design for the old
browsers, using slow links and low screen resolutions. One method for avoiding the
‘lowest common denominator problem’ is to offer the user a ‘high-tech’ or ‘low-tech’
choice: one for users with fast connections and high screen resolutions, and another for
users who do not have these. This facility is mainly seen offered on sites produced by
large companies since it requires more investment to effectively duplicate the site.
Despite these constraints, graphic design is important in determining the feel or char-
acter of a site. The graphic design can help shape the user’s experience of a site and
should be consistent with the brand involved.Site organisation
In their book Information Architecture for the World Wide Web, Rosenfeld and Morville
(2002) identify several different information organisation schemes. These can be applied
for different aspects of e-commerce sites, from the whole site through to different parts
of the site.
Rosenfeld and Morville (2002) identify the following information organisation schemes:1 Exact. Here information can be naturally indexed. If we take the example of books,
these can be alphabetical, by author or title; chronological – by date; or for travel
books, for example, geographical – by place. Information on an e-commerce site may
be presented alphabetically, but it is not suitable for browsing.
2 Ambiguous. Here the information requires classification, again taking the examples of
books, the Dewey Decimal System is an ambiguous classification scheme since the
librarians classify books into arbitrary categories. Such an approach is common on an
e-commerce site since products and services can be classified in different ways. Other
ambiguous information organisation schemes that are commonly used on web sites
are where content is broken down by topic, by task or by audience. The use of
metaphors is also common, a metaphor being where the web site corresponds to a
familiar real-world situation. The Microsoft Windows Explorer, where information is
grouped according to Folders, Files and Trash is an example of a real-world metaphor.
The use of the shopping basket metaphor is widespread within e-commerce sites. It
should be noted though that Nielsen (2000b) believes that metaphors can be confus-
ing if the metaphor isn’t understood immediately or is misinterpreted.
3 Hybrid. Here there will be a mixture of organisation schemes, both exact and ambiguous.Rosenfeld and Morville (2002) point out that using different approaches is common
on web sites, but this can lead to confusion, because the user is not clear what mental
model is being followed. We can say that it is probably best to minimise the number of
information organisation schemes.Site navigation schemes
Devising a site that is easy to use is critically dependent on the design of the site naviga-
tion scheme. Hoffman and Novak (1997) and many subsequent studies (e.g. Rettie, 2001,
Smith and Sivakumar, 2004) have stressed the importance of the concept of flowin gov-
erning site usability. The concept of ‘flow’ was first brought to prominence by Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi, a psychology professor at the University of Chicago. In his book, Flow:
The Psychology of Optimal Experience, he explains his theory that people are most happy
when they are in a state of flow – a Zen-like state of total oneness with the activity at
hand. In an online marketing context, ‘Flow’ essentially describes how easy it is for theDESIGNING THE USER EXPERIENCEInformation
organisation
schemes
The structure chosen to
group and categorise
information.Site navigation
scheme
Tools provided to the
user to move between
different information on
a web site.
Flow
Flow describes how
easy it is for users of a
site to move between
the different pages of
content of the site.INMA_C07.QXD 17/5/06 4:23 pm Page 327