Tactics, command, leadership

How an individual perceives and evaluates a given situation is de-
cisive for whether the individual will experience stress. In this
context, one can speak of appraisal and coping, which according
to Lazarus (1991) constitute the core of the stress complex of pro-
blems.
The term appraisal encompasses how an individual perceives
and evaluates a situation. It does not, however, entail any ratio-
nal interpretation of the situation. Lazarus also writes of primary
and secondary appraisals. A primary appraisal entails that an
event has occurred in the surroundings that has relevance to the
individual’s well­being. It is only if there is at least a degree of
personal interest at stake that any form of stress reaction will oc-
cur. Primary appraisals generate the question: Does it affect me?
Secondary appraisals entail the degree or extent to which a gi-
ven alternative can prevent, improve or increase a certain result.
Secondary appraisals generate the question: Is there a threat? If
there is a perceived or actual threat and this affects or is perceived
to affect the individual, stress occurs.
Coping entails cognitive and behavioural attempts to deal with
specific external and internal demands that are placed because
of the situation (and reciprocal conflicts) and that are appraised
as demanding or that exceed the resources of an individual. It is
a product of personal variables and environmental variables, and
entails how the individual in various ways handles a situation.
In brief it can be said that appraisal concerns how an individual
perceives and evaluates a situation, and coping is how an indivi-
dual deals with the situation. Coping and appraisals influence the
individual’s relations with the surroundings and the experience
of stress. But once again, appraisals and coping do not entail any
rational interpretation of the situation.
Factors in the surrounding environment that can cause stress
are called stress factors. When one is subjected to one or more
stress factors, the body reacts mentally, behaviourally and biolo-
gically in certain ways.
People react physically to stress (Enander, et al., 1993) with
physiological and motoric changes. The physiological changes
primarily include reactions in the autonomous (not consciously
activated) nervous system, hormone system and immune system.
Upon acute stress, the body enters an alarm state that among
other things is marked by increased heart rate, heightened blood
pressure and tightening of the muscles. The motoric changes in-