54 • Introduction to Art Therapy
In addition to being attracted to the use of art for the purpose of assessment, it was natu-
ral that analytically trained clinicians of all sorts would be drawn to employ it as a means of
psychotherapy. In fact, almost all of the references I found on the psychology of children’s art
for a 1957 seminar (with the exception of those by art therapy pioneer Margaret Naumburg)
had been written by psychologists or psychiatrists. One was Ernest Harms, who first pub-
lished in English in 1939, later founding the journal Art Psychotherapy in 1973. There were
also papers by the team of psychologist Ernest Zierer and his artist wife Edith (B), who
began using what they called “creative analysis” at Hillside Hospital in 1943.
Several responsive therapists, whose psychotic patients began to spontaneously com-
municate through art, encouraged them to do so and utilized it as part of the treatment.
There were many such clinicians, including Marguerite Sechehaye (1951) in France, Ralph
Pickford (1967) in Scotland, Marion Milner (1969) (C), Joseph Berke in England (Fig u re 3.1)
(D), (Barnes & Berke, 1971; cf. also Barnes & Scott, 1989); Ainslie Meares (1957, 1958, 1960)
in Australia, Ingrid Naevestad (1979) in Norway, and Sigrid Ude-Pestel (1977) in Germany.
Their case studies demonstrate how their capacity to “hear” their patients’ “symbolic speech”
was crucial to their eventual success.
Therapeutic Art Education
While these developments were occurring in mental health, educators were discovering the
value of a freer approach to art in schools. Inspired by Froebel’s “kindergarten” in Germany
Figure 3.1 Joseph Berke, M.D. with artist Mary Barnes.