itself neither memory nor fore-knowledge. It is the mind
which remembers and foresees. And by far the most po-
tent pleasures and pains are those of remembrance and an-
ticipation. A physical pleasure is a pleasure to the body
only now. But the anticipation of a future pain is mental
anxiety, the remembrance of a past joy is a present delight.
Hence what is to be aimed at above all is a calm untrou-
bled mind, for the pleasures of the body are ephemeral,
those of the spirit enduring. The Epicureans, like the Sto-
ics, preached the necessity of superiority to bodily pains
and external circumstances. So a man must not depend
for his happiness upon externals; he must have his blessed-
ness in his own self. The wise man can be happy even in
bodily torment, for in the inner tranquillity of his soul he
possesses a happiness which far outweighs any bodily pain.
Yet innocent pleasures of sense are neither forbidden, nor
to be despised. The wise man will enjoy whatever he can
without harm. Of all mental pleasures the Epicureans laid,
perhaps, most stress upon friendship. The school was not
merely a collection of fellow-philosophers, but above all a
society of friends.
Thirdly, the Epicurean ideal of pleasure tended rather to-
wards a negative than a positive conception of it. It was
not the state of enjoyment that they aimed at, much less
the excitement of the feelings. Not the feverish pleasures
of the world constituted their ideal. They aimed rather
at a negative absence of pain, at tranquillity, quiet calm,
repose of spirit, undisturbed by fears and {360} anxieties.
As so often with men whose ideal is pleasure, their view of
the world was tinged with a gentle and even luxurious pes-
simism. Positive happiness is beyond the reach of mortals.
All that man can hope for is to avoid pain, and to live in
quiet contentment.
Fourthly, pleasure does not consist in the multiplication of
needs and their subsequent satisfaction. The multiplication
of wants only renders it more difficult to satisfy them. It
complicates life without adding to happiness. We should
have as few needs as possible. Epicurus himself lived a
simple life, and advised his followers to do the same. The
wise man, he said, living on bread and water, could vie
with Zeus himself in happiness. Simplicity, cheerfulness,
moderation, temperance, are the best means to happiness.
The majority of human wants, and the example of the thirst
for fame is quoted, are entirely unnecessary and useless.
Lastly, the Epicurean ideal, though containing no possi-
bility of an exalted nobility, was yet by no means entirely
selfish. A kindly, benevolent temper appeared in these men.
It is pleasanter, they said, to do a kindness than to receive
one. There is little of the stern stuff of heroes, but there is
much that is gentle and lovable, in the amiable moralizings
of these butterfly-philosophers.
{361}