psychologypropagation of God’s message, and intelligence. From the Muslim per-
spective, the prophet is endowed with immunity from error and sin. The
prophet Muhammad does not function as a mediator between God and
humankind, he possesses no superhuman status, and he is certainly not
divine, but is simply God’s prophet, having been chosen by God for a
task on earth that involves proclaiming the divine word.
Further reading: Denny (1988); Peters (2003); von Rad (1965)
PSYCHOLOGY
With its roots in the Greek terms psyche (mind) and logos (doctrine), it
is the science of the conscious and unconscious mind, although there is
no consensus on a specific definition just as there is no single universal
definition of religion. Educated and employed at Harvard University,
William James (1842–1910) is credited with publishing the first truly
significant book on the psychology of religion The Varieties of Religious
Experience, whose contents date to the prestigious Gifford Lectures at
Edinburgh University in Scotland from 1901–1902. James is more con-
cerned with consciousness than the unconscious. According to James,
religion, a strenuous mode of life because it involves self-sacrifice,
courage, overcoming hardships and obstacles, is indicative of a radical
transformation of one’s existence, freedom, and the presence of a tran-
scendent power beyond oneself. These primary modes of experience
are the sources for religion, whereas secondary features such as theol-
ogy and dogma degenerate and decline over time. James draws a few
distinctions such as that between healthy-minded and unhealthy-minded
or sick souls. The initial distinction represents the “once-born,” which
is characterized by optimism, whereas the opposite “twice-born” is pes-
simistic because they experience a second birth by dying from their
unreal life.
Another major figure approaching religion through the lens of psy-
chology is Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). Freud associates religious peo-
ple with neurotics, with both parties practicing patterned behavior that
leads to feelings of guilt when one deviates from the path. Because
religion demands repression of one’s basic instincts, and psychological
neuroses originate from repressed fundamental instincts, there is a resem-
blance between religious behavior and mental illness by manifesting
a universal obsessional neurosis of our frustrated instincts. Freud also