scriptureIn contrast to Paul’s letters, the Gospels are more narratives and inter-
pretations of the life and teachings of Jesus. The authority of these texts is
grounded in the words and deeds of Jesus, which are preserved by mem-
ory and transmitted orally before being composed by anonymous authors.
During their formative period, the Gospels are considered historical testi-
monies, even though there are some striking differences between the texts;
it is not until later that they are considered scripture. In addition to the
Gospels and letters of Paul, what comes to be called the New Testament
includes several other works such as the Acts of the Apostles, the letters
of Peter, James, and Jude, and the Book of Revelation.
When he reaches forty years of age Muhammad begins to have strange
experiences in visions, dreams, and a feeling that words are written on
his heart. When he receives his first revelation (96.1–5), Muhammad is
commanded to speak by a heavenly messenger. This message and others
are preserved on any available material. The early messages concern the
power and mercy of God, the coming final Day of Judgment, the need
for humans to respond to God with fear, gratitude, and worship, and his
vocation as a prophet of God. These various messages from God over a
period of years represent the eternal word of God that eventually assumes
the written book form of the Qur’an. From an orthodox Muslim perspec-
tive, the prophet Muhammad is not the author of the uncreated word; he
is merely its recipient. Muhammad’s illiterate status (7.157–158) testifies
to his inability to compose the text. Muslim tradition testifies to others
writing the words of the revelation after being recited by the prophet after
he receives them from the angel Gabriel. Because many reciters of the
revelation are killed at the battle of Yamanah, not long after the death of
the prophet, the second caliph, Umar ibn al-Khattab, arranges to have the
revelation collected and written down to preserve it. The divine origin of
the Qur’an guarantees its status as a sacred scripture.
Within the cultural context of ancient India, the Vedas are conceived
as revealed scriptures, whereas other scriptures are considered tradition-
ally remembered literature (smÛti) and include such works as the Dharma
Sūtras (approximate dates of composition 600–200 bc), the epic
Mahābhārata (dates to between 300 bc–ad 300), the epic RāmāyaÏa
(composed between 200 bc–ad 200), and the vast body of PurāÏas,
which begin to be composed around ad 400. The Vedas consist of four
collections: Rig, Sāma, Yajur, and Atharva. Each of these four revealed
collections is further divided into four sections: Samhita (mantra or
sacred formula/utterance collection), BrāhmaÏa (theological and ritual
commentaries), ĀraÏyaka (forest or wilderness texts), and the Upaniãads
(speculative and secret philosophical texts). This revealed body of scrip-
ture is believed to have been revealed to ancient sages, who preserve