visionsA postmodern theory of violence is offered by Jacques Derrida, an
advocate of the method of deconstruction, who does not think that it is
possible to avoid violence. This is especially true of the process of writ-
ing, which can be identified with three moments: (1) the original violence
of writing; (2) violence of metaphysics; (3) violence associated with the
deconstructive method itself. The second moment of violence attempts to
suppress the violence of writing, whereas deconstruction makes it pos-
sible to return to original violence, although it is not truly a method.
Deconstruction is, however, parasitic and violent because it preys on the
text, other readings, and other interpretations. Language is thus a battle-
field where violence is committed.Further reading: Burkert (1983); Derrida (1978); Ellul (1970); Gandhi (1986);
Girard (1989); Lincoln (1991)VISIONS
From a cross-cultural perspective, visions are mental and visual representa-
tions of humans, animals, ghosts, spirits, or other forms of supernatural
beings. Visions are a broad concept that can include hallucinations, dreams,
unusual auditory or visual stimuli, possession, and trance states. Visions
are considered valid and real when a person is either in a wakeful or a sleep
condition. Scholars identify ecstatic, which implies being out of oneself,
experience as also a condition during which people have visions. Some
visions appear suddenly, while others may involve a long, arduous process.
In general, there are three methods for inducing a vision from a cross-cul-
tural perspective: (1) rhythmical stimulation by means of drums as among
Siberian shamans and Inuit Eskimo; (2) sensory deprivation as among the
Shakers; and (3) isolation and fasting as among the Oglala Indians. Seekers
of visions are driven by a quest for the truth or knowledge.
Among Native American Indians, it is common to seek visions during
times of crisis – war, disease, death – or as an act of thanksgiving. By
seeking visions during periods of stress, this gives three fundamental
results: (1) acquiring ritual privileges; (2) receiving advice; and (3)
acquiring power. Within Native American Indian culture, there are two
phases of a vision: quest and action. The action phase enables a person to
legitimatize one’s vision, whereas the quest phase refers to the methods
used to acquire a vision that usually involve isolation in a remote location
and self-mortification of various kinds. It is possible to identify a com-
mon pattern among Indians: (1) preparation by purifying baths; (2) sacred