celibacyand indigenous traditions, tend to reject celibacy, although it is possible
to find celibacy practiced at specific times and under certain circum-
stances within these traditions.
On the surface, celibacy seems to be a rather simple notion in the sense
that a person takes a vow or merely personally intends to practice it out-
side of an institutional context. It is actually complex because of its inter-
connection with the worldview, divine models, social values, gender
relations, ethical implications, religious roles or offices, understanding of
the physical body, and its practitioner’s connection to spiritual and polit-
ical power. In ancient Greece and Rome, citizens are expected to repro-
duce, while those choosing to remain unmarried are penalized by the
government. By virtue of their religious office, the Vestal Virgins are
granted an exemption. The emphasis on reproducing in classical culture
hides a conviction that sexual pleasure is potentially dangerous and anti-
social. Sexual orgasm is compared to a minor seizure of epilepsy and the
loss of a person’s vital spirit. Greek and Roman thinkers advocate self-
control and reason along with reproduction. Judaism also emphasizes
marriage and reproduction because they are normal and a divine ordi-
nance, although exceptions can be discovered, with celibacy forced by
the menstrual cycle of a wife, and the celibacy of prophets, and groups
such as the Essences, a communal Jewish sect active during the war of
66–70 ce when the Second Temple is destroyed by the Romans.
Celibacy can contribute to the creation of an exalted status and play
a role in the construction of a person’s identity. Jesus and the Buddha
are two historical religious figures who are celibate during their teach-
ing careers, and both of them become models for others to imitate.
Based on textual evidence, Jesus and the Buddha are charismatic fig-
ures. It is possible to grasp their charisma as grounded in their celibacy,
which points to their other-worldly focus, although their messages are
very different.
Celibacy can also represent a negotiation regarding social values and
cultural attitudes. The Protestant reformer Martin Luther denounces cel-
ibacy because it lacks scriptural grounds, sets clergy apart from the laity,
and can become a substitute for faith itself. Within the context of Islam,
the prophet Muhammad serves as a model for married life. In fact, the
Qur’an (57.27) denounces celibacy as a human invention and not a prac-
tice sanctioned by God. The mystical Sufi movement debates the merits
of celibacy and some Sufis adopt celibacy as a form of social protest. In
sharp contrast to Protestant Christianity and Islam, celibacy fits neatly
into the social and cultural values of the Jain community, where there is
a conviction that celibacy protects the soul from the harm associated with
sexual activity. Jains believe that the act of sexual intercourse destroys