384 Resisting Publics
The concept of an Arab public sphere
Prior to discussing Iraq, we need to recognize that the concept of the pub-
lic sphere is relatively new to Arab analytic and political discourse. On the
one hand, the concept offers the possibility of promoting a better compre-
hension of the possibilities of democratic change and greater individual
freedoms in the Arab world. It raises important questions about the deter-
minants of political participation, cultural tolerance, individual rights and
the rule of law. These issues are of particular concern in Iraq and the Arab
world where violence, political instability, authoritarian rule and the lack
of movement towards democratic governance are far too prevalent.
aising the issue of the public sphere in Arab Iraq draws attention R
to the question of the public sphere in Iraqi Kurdistan, Iraq’s three north-
ern Kurdish provinces. Much has been made of the development of civil
society building in Iraqi Kurdistan, especially since it was able to achieve
autonomy from the south following the February–March 1991 Intifada,
and the subsequent imposition of a “no-fly zone” by the United States fol-
lowing the uprising. By extension, the literature on post-1991 Kurdistan
implies a dramatic growth in the Kurdish public sphere as well.
hile this essay does not devote as significant attention to the devel-W
opment of a Kurdish public sphere as it does to the Arab public sphere,
many analysts now recognize that the optimism expressed after 1991 that
Kurdistan would become a truly democratic region of Iraq was misplaced.
The two main Kurdish political parties, the Kurdish Democratic Party
(KDP) and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK) continue to main-
tain a tight hold on the reins of power. Access to positions of political
influence and economic power are still determined by family and per-
sonal ties to the leadership of the KDP and PUK. Civil society organi-
zations that operate in an official capacity require government licenses.
The independent media, e.g., the newspapers Awene and Hawalati, are
frequently subjected to threats for articles critical of the Kurdish Regional
Government (KRG). Critics of the KRG have been sentenced to jail terms
for criticizing members of the Barzani family, which controls the KDP
and the KRG. Human Rights Watch has documented human rights abuses
in state-run prisons.^2 Corruption is widespread as it is in the south. While
the Kurdish public sphere will be addressed in greater detail below, the