The Language of Argument

3 7

C o n v e r s a t i o n a l A c t s

With a metaphor, we also compare certain items, but without words such

as “like” or “as.” Metaphorical comparisons are still figurative because the

vocabulary, at a literal level, is not appropriate to the subject matter. George

Washington was not literally the father of his country. Taken literally, it

hardly makes sense to speak of someone fathering a country. But the meta-

phor is so natural (or so familiar) that it does not cross our minds to treat the

remark literally, asking, perhaps, who the mother was.

Taken literally, metaphors are usually obviously false, and then they

violate Grice’s rule of Quality. Again, as with irony, when someone says

something obviously false, we have to decide what to make of that per-

son’s utterance. Perhaps the person is very stupid or a very bad liar, but

often neither suggestion is plausible. In such a situation, sometimes the

best supposition is that the person is speaking metaphorically rather than

literally.

Identify each of the following sentences as irony, metaphor, or simile. For each

sentence, write another expressing its literal meaning.

1. He missed the ball by a mile.


2. He acted like a bull in a china shop.


3. The exam blew me away.


4. He had to eat his words.


5. It was a real team effort. (Said by a coach after his team loses by forty points)


6. They are throwing the baby out with the bathwater.


7. This is a case of the tail wagging the dog.


8. “Religion is the opiate of the masses.” (Marx)

Exercise VIII

Unpack the following political metaphors by giving their literal content:

1. We can’t afford a president who needs on-the-job training.


2. It’s time for people on the welfare wagon to get off and help pull.


3. If you can’t stand the heat, get out of the kitchen.


4. We need to restore a level playing field.


5. The special interests have him in their pockets.


6. He’s a lame duck.

Exercise Ix

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