4 1The Language of Argument
Using the techniques developed in Chapter 2, this chapter will examine the
use of language to formulate arguments and will provide methods to analyze
genuine arguments in their richness and complexity. The first stage in analyzing
an argument is the discovery of its basic structure. To do this, we will examine
the words, phrases, and special constructions that indicate the premises and
conclusions of an argument. The second stage is the study of techniques used to
protect an argument. These include guarding premises so that they are less subject
to criticism, offering assurances concerning debatable claims, and discounting
possible criticisms in advance.Argument Markers
In Chapter 2, we saw that language is used for a great many different
purposes. One important thing that we do with language is construct
arguments. Arguments are constructed out of statements, but arguments are
not just lists of statements. Here is a simple list of statements:
Socrates is a man.
All men are mortal.
Socrates is mortal.
This list is not an argument, because none of these statements is presented as
a reason for any other statement. It is, however, simple to turn this list into
an argument. All we have to do is to add the single word “therefore”:
Socrates is a man.
All men are mortal.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Now we have an argument. The word “therefore” converts these sentences
into an argument by signaling that the statement following it is a conclusion,
and the statement or statements that come before it are offered as reasons on
behalf of this conclusion. The argument we have produced in this way is a
good one, because the conclusion follows from the reasons stated on its behalf.3
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