OverviewThe status and condition of Jewish women living
in Muslim societies are based on Jewish law and
traditions and influenced by Muslim law and prac-
tice, conditions specific to individual regions and
developments over time. Thus, while there are
those basics common to Jewish women in general,
specifics change due to neighboring cultural and
societal influences and historical and economic
developments.
The status of women as subordinate to men is
stated at the very beginning of the Bible, in the story
of the creation of the human race. According to one
version, the first man, Adam, was created by God
in his own image “male and female He created
them” (Genesis 1:27), thus giving women the same
divine origin as men. Nonetheless, another story of
creation is more popular and better known. It
states that Adam was created by God from the dust
of the earth and the first woman, Eve, was formed
by God from the rib of Adam, aimed to serve the
man and be his companion and helper (Genesis 2:7,
21–3). Accordingly, women were to be subordinate
to men, mainly under their husbands’ rule and their
chief function in life was childbearing. Thus, the
primary reason for the creation of two sexes was
not companionship and service but reproduction,
and much of the difference in Judaism between the
status of men and women derives from this.
In Biblical times marriage was usually arranged
between parents, but the woman’s approval was
requested. In later periods, this latter option often
remained only a formality and the daughter did not
have much say in the selection of the bridegroom.
In some regions, there were occasions in which
young Jews could see each other and choose a mate,
although parental approval was required. In Tri-
poli, Libya, on the last day of Passover, Jewish
maidens stood at the gate of their home, beautified
and nicely dressed, and young Jewish men walked
by to look at them. Afterwards, the men went to the
woman’s parents to ask for her in marriage. In vil-
lages, young people could often see each other at
the well, and then try to arrange an engagement. At
times, in Tripolitania, Jewish men got the help of
Muslim tribal chiefs for that purpose. Usually,
however, marriage was arranged by parents, and
was the beginning of an alliance. Even when it grew
Jewish Women
into companionship, it was rarely one between
equals, as the husband remained the master and the
wife took care of his needs.
Until the twentieth century, Jewish brides in
Muslim countries were often very young, between
the ages of 8 and 14. In some regions, even babies
were promised in marriage. In Yemen, this practice
was justified as a prevention measure, so that the
Muslim state could not claim “protection” over
Jewish orphans and Islamize them. This practice,
however, was often used to enable old men to marry
young girls. Among the crypto-Jews of Mashhad,
Iran, the practice was used after the 1839 forced
Islamization to prevent intermarriage with Mus-
lims. When foreign schools were established in
Muslim countries, they tried to postpone the mar-
riage age of Jewish girls.
Virginity was considered of paramount impor-
tance. When it was found that a woman was not a
virgin when married for the first time, she was
brought to the door of her father’s house and
stoned to death by the town’s people (Deuteron-
omy 22:20). In many Jewish communities under
Islam, it was common for the mother of the bride to
wait until the marriage was consummated and then
show the bloody dress or sheet as a proof of her
daughter’s virginity.
Although Biblical law allowed polygamy, the more
common practice was monogamy. Since childbear-
ing was considered the woman’s chief function,
barreness could be a reason for bigamous relations
and divorce, in order to enable men to have chil-
dren: it was the woman who was considered the
guilty party when a couple did not have children. In
later periods, if the couple did not have children for
ten years, the husband had to take another wife or
divorce his first wife if she refused to accept his
marrying a second wife. In the case of a man with
no heir special arrangements were developed in
Biblical times and elaborated later. His widow had
to marry his brother, or in the absence of a brother
another close relative. This practice (yibum, levi-
rate marriage) could cause polygamous marriages.
When the widow refused to marry the relative, she
had to receive his approval and undergo an elabo-
rate and humiliating ceremony, ™alitsah, removal
(of the shoe of the man and spitting at his face).
These rules are still in force, and men might
demand a hefty sum for releasing the widow from