These organizations occupy an important and
potentially powerful position in Indonesia (Marcoes
2002, 188).
The historical backgroundJamaat Tabligh
The breakup of the global system of Muslim
empires caused by religious and political rivalry in
the Muslim world and the expansion of European
colonial powers during the eighteenth and nine-
teenth centuries influenced the emergence of
reformist, revivalist, and scripturalist movements
in the Muslim world (Ali 2003, 108). The emer-
gence of the Jamaat Tabligh (Society for the propa-
gation of the faith) was part of the Muslims’
response to the broad historical forces that swept
the Muslim world. It is a quietist, apolitical, and
spiritual movement founded by Maulana Muham-
mad Ilyas in 1927 in Mewat, south of Delhi in India
(Ali 2003, 175).
Since the the partition of India and Pakistan in
1947, Jamaat Tabligh has developed into a trans-
national movement aimed at educating Muslims in
Islamic values and practices (Ali 2003, 175). The
movement is bound by six principles: kalima, the
declaration of faith that there is no God but Allah
and Muhammad is His Messenger; ßalàt, the per-
formance of the five daily prayers; ≠ilmand dhikr,
knowledge and remembrance of Allah; ikhlàs al-
niyya, the purity of intention and sincerity as most
pleasing Allah; ikràm al-Muslimìn, the respect and
honor that Muslims should demonstrate toward
fellow-believers; and tafrì≠al-waqt, sparing time for
self-reformation and missions for proselytization
to the movement (Ali 2003, 176).
Nahdlatul Ulama (NU)
The Nahdlatul Ulama (Revival of religious schol-
ars) was established by Javanese religious scholars
in 1926 to strengthen traditional Islam in Indonesia
and to counterbalance the religious appeals of
modernist Muhammadiyah (Candland and Nur-
janah 2004, 2). Since NU was composed of ≠ulamà±
who were exclusively male, the wives of the schol-
ars formed Muslimat and Fatayat to promote the
well-being and status of women (Tristiawati and
Munir 1995). Muslimat was founded in December
1940 in Surabaya, East Java for NU women above
the age of 40. Fatayat was established in Surabaya,
East Java, in April 1950, for women between the
ages of 20 and 40. Structurally, Muslimat and Fata-
yat are linked to thousands of villages and millions
malaysia and indonesia 709of women in the country (Candland and Nurjanah
2004, 5).Muhammadiyah
The Muhammadiyah (followers of Muhammad)
is a reformist socioreligious movement set up in
Jogjakarta in 1912 by a modernist Muslim, Ahmad
Dahlan (Alfian 1969, 244–5). Its aim was to bring
Muslims to the true teachings of Islam as enshrined
in the Qur±àn and ™adìth. To achieve this objective,
Ahmad Dahlan laid down the major activities to be
undertaken by the movement. These activities con-
sisted of tablìgh(religious propagation), education,
Aisyiyah (the sister organization of the movement),
social welfare, boy scouts, enterprise, publications,
libraries, and a few other activities (Alfian 1969,
263). Unlike NU affiliated women’s organizations,
Aisyiyah was initiated not by women members but
by the founder himself (Alfian 1969, 245). Con-
cerned with the backward social status of women,
he established Aisyiyah in order to improve their
position in society (ibid., 246–7). Until today,
Muhammadiyah has continued to undertake activ-
ities similar to those identified by Ahmad Dahlan.
The participation of women is encouraged. Aisyi-
yah, however, concentrates on religious, education,
and health activities.Gender relations
Generally, societies in the developed countries
believe that men and women have equal rights and
responsibilities in every aspect and activity in life.
Rather than merely copying the Western model, the
Islamic movements and associations in Muslim
countries offer a distinct understanding of what it
means to be a woman and a man in society. The
Jamaat Tabligh is a case in point. In its ideological
construction of gender, both men and women are
enjoined to share responsibility for family and
da≠wa(propaganda) work. Indeed, men and women
in this group engage in what some societies would
label as masculine or feminine roles, yet they do it
to create a moral order which they believe to be
Islamic in character and founded on the sunnaof
the Prophet.
When they set out on a da≠wamission, men are
exposed to different roles regardless of their socio-
economic status. These roles vary from teacher, to
nurse, cook, or cleaner. Through this, they learn
progressively how to perform the roles that are
traditionally associated with femininity and they
apply this not only during the mission but also
when they are at home. While men are on a