loyalties to the sovereign, secular nation-state, and
the religious umma. These competing loyalties
eventually led to a larger separation between Islam
and nationalism.
Women participated in the nationalist move-
ments and were also symbolically invoked in the
emerging nationalist discourses. Generally, how-
ever, nationalist movements and discourses did not
provide effective solutions for problems of gender
inequality, and the nationalist project remained
heavily dominated by men. When, in the second half
of the twentieth century, some nationalists began
to speak out in favor of a complete separation of
religious and national identities, many Islamists
responded by arguing that loyalty to the Islamic
ummanegates any other loyalty to ethnic, linguistic,
or geographical entities. To a greater extent than
their nationalist counterparts, women participated
in the Islamist movements and here too were sym-
bolically invoked in the Islamic critiques of nation-
alism. Nonetheless, the idea of an Islamic umma, as
it is used in contemporary political discourse, car-
ries the imprints of the nation-state with which it is
competing. Similarly, the challenges facing women
within the context of the nationalist movements,
whether secular or Islamic, are intertwined. And
despite substantial limitations on political and legal
expressions of the idea of the umma, it remains a
significant source of social identity for many
Muslim men and women throughout the world.Bibliography
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