366 Chapter 21
usually as powders, sometimes as a separate
emulsion.
In order to inhibit the growth of undesired,
mainly pathogenic microorganisms (e.g.,
Listeria monocytogenes ), lactate and acetate
can be used. An interesting possibility may
be the application of L. monocytogenes spe-
cifi c bacteriophage.Temperature of Meat and Fat
Adequate temperature control is important
not only during storage of meat and fat but
even more during comminution. Depending
on the technology, meat and fat are ground
(Italian) or chopped (German, Hungarian,
etc.). When grinding, chilled meat and pos-
sibly frozen fat can be used, but in a bowl
chopper, even, uniform comminution with
clear cut fat particles can be attained only
with frozen fat ( − 5 – − 7 ° C).
Should the temperature be higher, smear-
ing of fat particles will occur during chop-
ping and stuffi ng, which causes drying
failure, leading to hygienic risk and sensoric
problems (Incze 1992 ). During chopping or
after grinding, spices, curing salt, additives,
and starter culture, if used, are added.
Stuffi ng machines have to handle the
comminuted and blended meat batter without
smearing or oxygen bubbles if possible.
Sausages are stuffed in natural or artifi cial
casing with good vapor permeability. As for
artifi cial casings, mostly fi brous cellulose
and collagen casings are used. Detailed
descriptions of various types are given in
Savic and Savic (2002).Use of Starter Cultures
Lactobacilli (lactic starters) metabolize car-
bohydrates added to lactic acid, thus reduc-
ing pH, as mentioned, and contributing to the
characteristic aroma that is nevertheless not
as acidic as with short - ripened products.
Staphylococci and yeasts are used mainly for
forming aroma substances and for betterNaNO 2 ). As a result of the reaction between
meat pigment and curing salt (NaNO 2 ), a
stable red color is formed that becomes
deeper because of drying. Details on the
chemistry of color formation are discussed
by M ø ller and Skibsted (2007). Because of
the suspicion of nitrosamine formation from
nitrate and nitrite added to meat products,
curing salts ran into cross fi re from critics;
since the 1970s, a good amount of research
has been aimed at elucidating the conditions
for formation and inhibition of nitrosamines.
Since nitrite is an effi cient substance for the
inhibition of botulotoxin formation, it is still
widely used but usually in combination with
ascorbate, a proven inhibitor of nitrosamine
formation. Other, mainly natural antioxidants
can be used, too, in order to retard oxidative
changes causing organoleptic faults and color
and fl avor defi ciencies. With a much more
complicated system, the advantageous effects
of curing salt could theoretically be replaced
(Demeyer et al. 2008 ) by applying natural
(extracted) or artifi cial (industrially synthe-
sized) colors in combination with antioxi-
dants and hurdle technology (Leistner 2000 )
that would work with cooked items; still, its
effi ciency and safety, not to mention taste,
may be questioned in the case of raw dried
sausages. Initial salt concentration amounts
to 2.5 – 3.5%. Extreme care has to be taken
with concentrations lower than 2.5% in order
to avoid safety risks.
Carbohydrates must be added to sausages
with lactic starters, usually in a concentration
of 0.3% – 0.7%, depending on the type of car-
bohydrate and the amount of spices with high
carbohydrate content. Commonly used car-
bohydrates are glucose, sucrose, and some-
times lactose (all with different breakdown
times; glucose has the fastest).
Depending on quality requirements, pork
rind and plant proteins are also used for dry
sausage production in different concentra-
tions. Pork rind is usually prepared by acidi-
fi cation, making homogenization more
successful, while plant proteins are added,