Handbook of Meat Processing

Restructured Whole-Tissue Meats 403

glutamyltransferase, EC 2.3.2.13) have been

used to bind muscle pieces (Akamittath

and Ball 1992 ; Kuraishi et al. 1997 ).

Transglutaminase catalyzes an acyl transfer

reaction between the γ - carboxylamide group

of a peptide - bound residue and a primary

amine (Dickinson 1997 ). ACTIVA TM

(Ajinomoto 2004 ) TG - S is a transglutamin-

ase preparation for meat processing that is

used in many countries for restructuring

meat. Activa TG - S is derived from microor-

ganisms and does not require Ca 2+ for binding

activity (Ajinomoto 2004 ). The optimum

temperature and pH for Activa TM transgluta-

minase are 55 ° C and 6 to 7, respectively

(Ajinomoto 2004 ). Reviews of transgluta-

minase catalyzed reactions and use for food

processing have been published (Motoki

and Seguro 1998 ; De Jong and Koppelman

2002 ).

Fibrimex (Harimex Inc., Alberta, Canada)

is a blood - based cold binding system that

binds meat pieces based on the blood clotting

action between fi brinogen and thrombin,

resulting in the conversion of fi brinogen to

fi brin which cross - link with collagen and gel,

thereby binding the meat pieces being

restructured (Boles and Shand 1998 ).

Pearl Meat cold - set binders are a carbohy-

drate, protein, and bone ash mix. Pearl F is a

fi ne white powder manufactured by Chiba

Flour Milling Co. Ltd, Japan, and used to

bind seam - boned muscle and large meat

pieces (Esguerra 1994 ), and Pearl E is a pro-

tein - active meat binder developed by Earlee

Products Qld, Australia, and used in binding

odd - sized pieces of raw meat ( http://www.

earlee.com.au/contact.htm ).

Various types of hot - and cold - set binding

systems were compared in previous studies

using meat from different species of animals.

Fraser et al. (1993) compared several hot -

set binders, including salt and phosphate,

dairy protein, tapioca starch, soy protein,

potato starch, and carrageenan, for restructur-

ing whole - tissue lamb products. Alginate,

Fibrimex, and Pearl F binding systems were

boneless lamb legs (Fig. 23.1 ; Farouk et al.
2002 ) or boneless hams (Huang et al. 1997 )
have been restructured to look like intact
muscles.

Hot - and Cold - Set Binders

In hot - set restructuring, myofi brillar proteins
are extracted by the combined effect of salt,
phosphate, and mechanical action to form a
surface protein matrix; heat is then applied to
set the proteins (Trout and Schmidt 1987 ).
The surface - binding matrix can be created by
the use of various starches and proteins, such
as milk proteins, soy protein, blood plasma
protein, tapioca, and potato starch and car-
rageenan (Fraser et al. 1993 ). Other hot - set
binders include whey proteins; wheat gluten
and surimi; egg white powder; raw egg white;
bovine, porcine, lamb, and broiler plasma
powders; and gelatine (Chen and Trout 1991 ;
Lu and Chen 1999 ). The major drawback of
the hot - set method is that the product must
be marketed pre - cooked and/or frozen.
Several cold - set techniques have been
developed to meet the demand for restruc-
tured meats that can be sold in the raw chilled
state (Clarke et al. 1988 ; Esguerra 1994 ;
Nielsen et al. 1996 ). Alginate, a polysaccha-
ride extracted from brown seaweed, can be
used for cold - set binding comminuted or
diced pieces of meat (Clarke et al. 1988 ; Al -
Joher and Clarke 1993 ; Schaake et al. 1993 ;
Boles and Shand 1998 ). Ingredients com-
monly used in alginate binding systems
include alginate salt, a calcium source, an
acidulant, and a sequestrant (FMC Biopolymer
2001 ). Sodium alginate, calcium carbonate,
and GDL (glucon - delta - lactone) are the
forms of alginate, calcium, and acidulant
sources mostly used in meat applications. A
thermo - irreversible gel is formed when
calcium ions are introduced into an alginate
solution. Gelation using alginate - binding
system is time and concentration dependent.
Both mammalian and microbial trans-
glutaminase (Tgase, protein - glutamine γ -