United States, with greater prevalence among females
and younger skaters (Wilber et al, 1999; Provost-
Craig et al).- Relatively cold air temperatures in combination with
questionable air quality from ice resurfacer exhaust
fumes, inadequate ventilation systems, and mold in
many rinks produces a significant environmental trig-
ger for EIB (Wilber et al, 1999; Provost-Craig et al).
Repetitive bouts of extremely vigorous exercise,
where HR often reaches 90–100% of predicted maxi-
mums during the 1st min of a 4- to 5-min program,
also put athletes at increased risk for symptoms of
EIB.
•Evaluation for EIB symptoms using self-reported
symptoms yields high rates of both false positive and
false negative results when correlated with spirometry
(Rundell et al, 2001). Ideally, screening for EIB in
elite athletes should be carried out using spirometry in
a sport-specific environmental setting and under com-
petition level of exertion (Rundell et al, 2000). - Since spirometry is not easily available at most ice
rinks, an athlete can be educated to check their peak
flows while at the rink. Peak flows should be
obtained before a performance of a long program and
at 1 and 5 min after the program is completed. A
10–15% decrease in peak flow can be suggestive of
EIB. - Most skaters respond well to preexercise treatment
with an inhaled quick-acting beta agonist, though
many elite skaters report a greater improvement in
peak flows and symptoms when they use longer-
acting beta-agonists because they train intermit-
tently throughout the day at varying intensities. A
trial of a long acting beta agonist with an inhaled
steroid may be indicated if the athlete’s peak flows
do not sufficiently improve with single agent ther-
apy.
DISORDEREDEAT I N G
- Eating disorders and disordered eating patterns are
increasing in frequency among figure skaters. It is
unclear what the prevalence is, and whether the risk of
eating disorders increases as the skaters climb through
the ranks of national and international levels (Ziegler
et al, 1998).
MENSTRUALDYSFUNCTION
- Delayed menarche is not uncommon among female
figure skaters. Female figure skaters may have delayed
onset of menses by 1 year, and nearly half of menstru-
ating females report irregular or absent cycles (Zeigler
et al, 1998). Delays and irregularities are attributed to
a high level of training, and inadequate caloric intake
with relation to activity level (Williams et al, 1995).
THEFEMALEATHLETETRIAD- As in any sport in which appearance is judged, clini-
cians must maintain a high level of suspicion for the
potential of the continuum of the female athlete triad.
CONCUSSIONS, LACERATIONS, CONTUSIONS- Skaters involved in pairs skating, ice dancing, and
synchronized skating suffer a higher rate of concus-
sions, contusions, and lacerations as compared with
single skaters. Frequently, multiple skaters are injured
at the same time in synchronized skating.
THE FUTURE- In summary, at least half of all figure skating injuries
are likely preventable due to overuse mechanisms
and/or boot and blade issues. New boot design con-
siderations include: flexibility, comfort, support, dura-
bility, cushioning of landing impact, ability to plantar
and dorsi flex foot to assist with shock absorption
from jumping and to assist in power for jump takeoffs,
affordability, blade alignment and mounting, weight
of boot and blades, and adaptability to orthoses. - Figure skating is a demanding sport that requires
athletes to begin training at a young age and be able
to successfully perform jumps of increasing diffi-
culty. Unfortunately, many prepubescent athletes can
do a large number of jumps, and while going through
puberty, get injured. In order to prevent injuries,
studies need to be done incorporating the age as well
as the development of the athletes, to determine the
exact number of jumps to perform each day. Factors
that should be considered include: type of jump,
level of mastery, physical issues such as strength and
symmetry, hours of on-ice and off-ice training,
recovery time between sessions, and time in training
cycle.
REFERENCES
Brock RM, Striowski CC: Injuries in elite figure skaters. Phys
Sports Med14:111–115, 1986.
King DL, Arnold AS, Smith SL: A kinematic comparison of
single, double and triple axels. J Appl Biomech 10:51–60,
1994.
Kjaer M, Larsson B: Physiological profile and incidence of
injuries among elite figure skaters.J Sports Sci10:29–36,
1992.
Lockwood K, Gervais P: Impact forces upon landing single,
double, and triple revolution jumps in figure skaters. Clin
Biomech(Bristol, Avan) 12(3): S11, Apr. 1997.490 SECTION 6 • SPORTS-SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS