and total quality control (TQC) have been practised in both local and foreign
companies. However, the system is adapted to local laws and practices.
The term HRM is in fact mostly de rigueurin the more prominent Sino-
foreign JVs, particularly the larger ones. However, even in these types of firms,
management seems to be more inward-looking, with a focus on issues like
wages, welfare and promotion as found in the conventional personnel arrange-
ments rather than strategic ones like long-term development normally associ-
ated with HRM (see Table 8.1). Clearly, at this time, there is no homogeneous
model of HRM in Chinese enterprises. Individual enterprises are reforming
their HRM systems differently on the basis of their existing conditions and the
impact of economic reform.VietnamVietnamese society has experienced many changes, from the early years of
Chinese political and cultural influence (111 BC– AD939) through French
colonisation, Japanese invasion, and American occupation, to later communist
rule and independence, and more recently economic reform and engagement
in the global economy. There are marks in Vietnamese society of all these
historical influences.
Fundamentally, the traditional thinking in Vietnam was influenced by
ancient Chinese philosophies, predominantly by Confucianism. Confucianism
came to Vietnam after 111 BCwhen the Chinese emperor colonised Vietnam
and brought important technology, including water buffalo, the plough, pigHRM in East Asia 211Employment systems in Chinese enterprises
OLD NEW
Plan Market
Cadres Managers
SOEs and COEs Diverse owners
Life-time employment Labour contracts
Personnel management Adapted-HRM
Flat reward structure Performance-based wages
Zero labour turnover Greater job mobility
Few dismissals Labour discipline
Free medical care Contributory insurance
Subsidised housing Market rentals or sales
All-China Federation of Trade Unions presence Often no union or Congress
Top-down IR Tripartism
TABLE 8.1