The Sudan Handbook

244 thE sudan handbook

of the mystical practices of Sufism, religious chanting, or zikr, became

a central feature of religious practice. Zikr is a ritual through which the

participants endeavour to reach a state of perfection through uninter-

rupted meditation and the chanting of the divine attributes of God. It

has remained one of the most popular religious activities in the Sudan,

visible in public devotions such as the large-scale ceremonies that take

place in Omdurman. With its fast tempo and the colourful performances,

the zikr clearly reflects the blending of Islam with indigenous cultural

tradition. Another genre of singing, which is common among some rural

communities in the central parts of the Sudan is called the dobait, vocal-

ized singing in which a romantic theme or praise is communicated.

An important religious practice in the north, originating in practices

that predate Islam, is the zar. Zar is both a category of spirits and a

possession cult, largely in the hands of women. Possession by zar spirits

can cause problems such as illness, sometimes interpreted as a form of

mental illness, and many of the rituals of the zar ceremonies are directed

at controlling such disorders. Healing is enacted through possession

trances. Participants become actively possessed; while in this state they

act out the characteristics of the possessing spirit in behaviour, dress,

movement, and sometimes speech. Healing from the illness involves

extended singing, drumming, and dancing. These performances allow

women to transgress everyday social norms through dramatic enact-

ments, including drinking and smoking.

The Growth of the Three Cities

Urbanization in the modern period in Sudan dates from Turco-Egyptian

rule. As the capital of the Turkish regime, Khartoum metamorphosed

from a small fishing village into a major commercial and administrative

centre. The expansion of trade into the Upper Nile regions in the early

1840s had a significant impact on the growth of the city. With its strategic

location on major land routes and waterways, Khartoum became the

economic hub of the Sudan, a cosmopolitan city with vibrant commer-

The Sudan Handbook, edited by John Ryle, Justin Willis, Suliman Baldo and Jok Madut Jok. © 2011 Rift Valley Institute and contributors cial markets and bazaars where local and imported Middle Eastern and

(www.riftvalley.net).