narrator then tells us at the end of the chapter that the interlocutors talked of
karma. This may be a late interpolation, since the lines appear at the end of a
chapter. If not, it implies that karma—in whatever version at that time—was a
secret doctrine, not a view that would be accepted as religiously binding by most
hearers. As late as the Bhagavad Gita, a series of interpolations in the Mahabharata
influenced by the new Hindu philosophical schools ca. 100–500 c.e., there is a
mixture of conflicting doctrines about reincarnation and other forms of life after
death (e.g., 1.42.44; 8.6.23–25; 9.25). The thread which is retrospectively empha-
sized, that favorable reincarnation depends on performance of one’s duties under
caste law, becomes the dominant religious interpretation still later, in the final
onslaught against Buddhism around 700 c.e..- For debates on these dates, see Hirakawa (1990: 22–23).
- The futile questions which the Buddha tells his followers to avoid are similar to
Kant’s antinomies: the beginning and end of the universe, the difference between
body and soul, life after death. These are favorite debating topics among the
Upanishadic sages; by denying their solubility, the Buddha claims a superior level
of reflexive sophistication. - For various translations and sources, see Nakamura (1980: 66–69; Kalupahana
(1986: 10–16). - The Ajivikas too received royal patronage, for instance, under the Maurya dynasty.
Mahavira and Makkhali Gosala were close associates until their debates led to a
sharp break between their respective sects. Mahavira and Shakyamuni competi-
tively proselytized some of the same lay patrons. But Shakyamuni’s strongest
enemy, in tactical struggles in the lay community as well as in debate, was Makkhali
Gosala (Mizuno, 1980: 120–141; Basham, 1951; OHI, 1981: 77, 130). This rivalry
probably resulted from the fact that Shakyamuni was both appropriating and
negating Makkhali’s key doctrine in proposing a method to overcome karmic fate. - Mizuno (1980: 99, 104). The Jainas also preached, although not as aggressively
as the Buddhists. - Chakravarti (1987: 122–149). This recruitment base continued throughout the
lifetime of Indian Buddhism. - The range of meditation techniques includes one-pointed concentration, observing
one’s breath, stilling the inner dialogue, focusing on consciousness itself apart from
its objects (Buddhist and Yoga techniques); visualizing energies or lights within
one’s own body, especially in the genitals; raising inner heat and moving it about
one’s body (tantric techniques); inwardly visualizing symbols, gods, the experience
of one’s own death, the letters in the name of God, and so on (Tibetan Buddhist,
Sufi, Taoist, Kabbalist techniques); outwardly focusing on visual symbols (man-
dalas, crucifixes, etc.); chanting mantras (pure sounds) or sutras (holy texts),
singing verbal hymns; rhythmic dancing (Sufi darvish sects, medieval Japanese
Amidaists); physical activities to the point of exhaustion, or self-torture (Sufis,
shramanas, Christian ascetics, shamans, tribal vision-seekers); verbal prayer or
communication with a personified deity (Christianity); counting, slowing, or hold-
ing breaths (Buddhists, Taoists); blowing and spitting (Chinese Huai-nan Tzu);
964 •^ Notes to Pages 200–206