Where employees feel unfairly treated they can respond affectively, for example,
by demonstrating reduced organisational commitment and/or behaviourally e.g.
finding employment elsewhere.
Although Latham and Pinder found that expectancy theory (see Section 2.3.3)
has largely been replaced in motivation studies by goal-setting and social-
cognitive theories, it is interesting to note how the themes of goals and leadership
run through the various theories from expectancy theories of work motivation
(Georgopoulos et al. 1957; Vroom 1964), to path-goal leadership theory (House
1971; House and Mitchell 1974) and more recently into transformational
leadership theory (Bass and Riggio 2006).
Section 2.3.3 introduced the expectancy / valence-instrumentality-expectancy
(VIE) theories of motivation and described how work motivation can be viewed as
a product of (i) an individual’s perception of the likelihood of achieving a goal
based on a particular degree of effort and (ii) the desirability of that outcome.
Path-goal leadership theory essentially focuses on the leader’s role in modifying
these perceptions and beliefs (Yukl 2010: 169) and a key leader behaviour for the
positive modification of employee perceptions and beliefs is clarifying the
method/s of achieving the goals – i.e. clarifying the path to the goal. Elsewhere,
Jex and Britt (2008: 316) describe how the leader behaving in the directive
paradigm “...focuses on making sure that subordinates know what they are
supposed to be doing, and perhaps clarifying task responsibilities”.
These goal- and effort-focused characteristics of the expectancy (motivation) and
path-goal (leadership) theories can be seen as reflecting the goal-related
Inspirational Motivation (IM) dimension of the Full-Range Leadership Model
(FRLM) which describes how leaders: (i) talk optimistically about the future; (ii)
talk enthusiastically about what needs to be accomplished; (iii) articulate a
compelling vision of the future; and (iv) express confidence that goals will be
achieved (Avolio and Bass 2004a: 96).
Two discrete theories of work motivation which have not yet been discussed are
Hackman and Oldham’s Job Characteristics Theory (Hackman and Oldham 1976,
1980) and Herzberg’s (1966; 1968) Two-Factor / Motivation-Hygeine Theory.
These theories are essentially needs-based theories but are set apart from many
other approaches to understanding work motivation in that these were developed