182 CRITICAL THEORY AND LEADERSHIP PRACTICES
empowers others through multicultural and ethnic understanding”; and in Standard six, “To
integrate curriculum for multicultural sensitivity and assessment” (Carter & Cunningham,
1997, p. 18). As diverse student populations move into formerly predominantly White middle-
class school districts (Hodgkinson, 2007), superintendents are being challenged to rethink
their assumptions about children who do not share the same characteristics as previous
constituency. Their limited experiences to diverse student populations and experience as
primary change agents might include blind spots with real consequences for marginalized
children (children living in poverty, English Language Learners, and racial minorities).
The NPBEA played a significant role in the development and implementation of standards
for national accreditation of administrator preparation programs across the country (Green,
2005). Accrediting bodies, such as NCATE, and academic bodies, such as the National
Council of Professors of Educational Administration (NCPEA) also provide ongoing interest
in the improvement of student outcomes. NCATE adopted Smith’s (1998) cultural knowledge
base framework specifically for Standard 4, which focused on diversity. Smith’s framework is
anchored in the belief that school leaders fall somewhere on a continuum with one extreme
being genericists and the other being multiculturalists/reconstructionists (p. 18). Genericists
are individuals who believe that established knowledge and skills expected by middle-class
families are applicable to diverse populations. On the other hand, multiculturalists/
reconstructionists argue that it takes special expertise and skills to work effectively with
individuals from diverse backgrounds (p. 18). Although genericists may have good intentions,
some scholars contend that genericists tend to see the world through a single cultural lens,
treating all children alike (Howard, 2001; Smith, 1998).
National leadership standards (ISLCC, AASA, and NCATE) emphasize the significance
of improving the schooling experiences of diverse school communities. The nation’s increase
in diverse student populations raises concerns, especially considering how cognitive and non-
cognitive expectations bear negative educational consequences for minority populations
(Banks, 2004). Negative consequences for minority populations include inequitable resources,
escalating student failure, an alienated school climate, and declining expectations along with
negative teacher attitudes towards students. Conventional actions, such as those just
mentioned, often reproduce and legitimize negative consequences for children who are living
in poverty, English Language Learners, and racial minorities (Kozol, 2006; Marshall & Oliva,
2006). With this in mind, superintendents are in positions to promote racial interactions,
transmit racial knowledge, and affirm/challenge racial attitudes and meaning (Lewis, 2001).
Kowalski (2003) concludes that superintendents in the 21st century should be visionary
transformational leaders who rebuild organizations by assisting communities to address
contemporary realities. These new responsibilities portray the superintendent in a new light as
they work collaboratively with schools (Hoyle, Bjork, Collier, & Glass, 2005). With these
standards and new responsibilities in mind, superintendents have the potential to perpetuate
implicit and explicit culturally sensitive school practices throughout their communities.
New roles and responsibilities for superintendents include the need to engage in long-term
planning and to develop effective strategies to build learning communities that meet the needs
of our nation’s changing populations (Hoyle, English, & Steffy, 1998; Murphy & Hallinger,
1986). However, the increase in diverse student populations does not reflect demographic
changes in those who serve as school leaders, with over 90 percent of school leaders
identified as White (National Collaborative on Diversity in the Teaching Force, 2004;
Hodgkinson, 2007; Gomez, 1996; Feistritzer, 1985). This imbalance amounts to a structural
condition that requires new understanding with a focus on cultural competence of school
leaders responsible for improving the performance of Black, Latino, and impoverished