204 CRITICAL THEORY AND LEADERSHIP PRACTICES
that a major path to the superintendency is the high school principal position (Bjork et al.,
2000; Farmer, 2007) where the percentage of women compared to the elementary level (45%)
is much lower (13%).
Education preparation
With regard to levels of education attainment, of the 411 participants who responded to
this question, 65% of the sample had earned a doctorate, 24% an M.A. plus additional credits,
11% an M.A. or M.S. and less than one per cent a B.A. plus (actually only one participant).
Since these percentages seemed to represent an extremely large number of participants with a
doctorate, a Chi-Square test was performed to determine if the observed and expected
frequencies of level of education was significant. Having found that only one individual had
an educational level of B.A./B.S. plus, that case was eliminated from the statistical analyses
and a “goodness-of-fit” test was performed on the expected frequencies of educational level
for the categories remaining M.A., M.A.+ and Ph.D/Ed.D. The computed chi-square statistic
was 191.829 and found to be significant, p = .000 (see Table 4). Whether this statistical
occurrence can be replicated equally among male superintendents is speculative. Based upon
this finding, it appeared likely that a doctorate was a pre-requisite for a woman to attain a
superintendent position. The literature pointed to the fact that women are now the majority in
graduate administration preparation programs and “are also walking off with most of the
honors degrees” (Christie, 2007. p. 474).
Survey questions pertaining to education experience displayed a variety of responses.
Table 4 displays participants’ education experience; it must be assumed that many responses
were articulated across categories. Although calculation of the means on each category
seemed low, it can be assumed that many of the participants’ responses can be attributed to
several categories. For example, a respondent could have spent 3 years as a supervisor, 2
years as a director, 5 years as a principal and 3 years as a superintendent for a total of 13 years
of administrative experience. Overall, the highest mean scores were obtained in teaching
experience, 8 years, the principalship, 7 years, and the superintendency, 6 years.
Additionally, Table 4 illustrates that most participants had served as a building principal
and a little less than half had served in the capacity of assistant superintendent of schools.
What can be surmised is that most participants were experienced administrators, specifically
at the building level, a trend that is increasing in importance as school districts are mandated
to address the performance issues of NCLB, specifically Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP).
HOW WE CRACKED THE GLASS CEILING
In a study conducted in Texas of six women superintendents to identify professional and
personal characteristics and style of leadership, leadership themes emerged from the data
analysis that made these women outstanding in their field.
Eight recurring themes that emerged from the inductive data analysis include being a
visionary, acting professionally and ethically, allowing time for dreaming and
creating, communicating effectively and often, motivating staff and self, being truly
committed to their leadership role and to children, having a strong work ethic and
having the energy and stamina in order to do their job (Funk, Pankake & Schroth,
2002, p. 5).