Explicit both in the New Testament and in other Chris-
tian literature is the secondary understanding that suffering
may serve a disciplinary function. As Paul states: “Suffering
produces endurance, and endurance produces character, and
character produces hope” (Rom. 5:3–4). Such learning expe-
riences are designed to conform the Christian to the image
of Christ himself. This sense of suffering as a way in which
God disciplines believers is echoed both in Hebrews 12:3–13
and in James 1:2–4. A corollary concept, which is also pres-
ent in Jewish thought, holds that suffering may also be seen
as a preventive dose of spiritual medicine, intended, as it
were, to forestall the germination of sin.
Christianity absorbed other interpretations of suffering
that are Jewish in origin. For example, in the Jewish tradi-
tion, suffering is a part of the prophetic situation that is a
characteristic of the burden of ascent. In a development of
this idea, Acts of the Apostles 20:23 states that Paul’s suffer-
ings—stonings, imprisonments, and other afflictions—
resulted from his missionary activity. Paul himself states that
the sufferings he endured resulted from his faithfulness to his
task of bringing the Christian message to the whole world.
Upholding one’s beliefs, it was acknowledged, would
bring on the opprobrium of the world. The writer of Mat-
thew warns: “Then they will deliver you up to tribulation,
and put you to death; you will be hated by all nations for
my name’s sake” (Mt. 24:9); and, “They will deliver you up
to councils and flog you in their synagogues” (Mt. 10:17).
Acts relates that the apostles who had been imprisoned and
beaten “left the presence of the council, rejoicing that they
were counted worthy to suffer dishonor for the name” (Acts
5:41). Not just individuals, but whole Christian communi-
ties were persecuted and suffered for their beliefs.
From a Christian perspective, suffering is something
that is both inevitable and welcome—something to be con-
fronted rather than avoided. In 2 Corinthians 12: 9–10, Paul
exults: “Most gladly therefore will I rather glory in my infir-
mities, that the power of Christ may rest upon me. Therefore
I take pleasure in infirmities, in reproaches, in necessities, in
persecutions, in distresses for Christ’s sake, for when I am
weak, then I am strong.” The sense that suffering is inescap-
able appears in Jesus’ experience in the Garden of Gethsema-
ne, where on the eve of his crucifixion, he prays: “Father, if
thou be willing, remove this cup from me; nevertheless, not
my will, but thine, be done” (Lk. 22:42).
In both Christianity and Judaism, the peak of suffering
is reached when an individual (or a people) prefers to give
his or her own life rather than transgress God’s command-
ments or forsake and repudiate true religion. Many passages
in Jewish literature are devoted to martyrologies (especially
those detailing the martyrdoms of Rabbi EAqivaD and of
H:anina’ ben Teradyon), noting the martyrs’ strong affirma-
tions of faith at the time of their deaths. Christianity relates
similar examples of the religious courage of the faithful, most
notably Jesus himself. In the gospels of Matthew and Mark,
Jesus asks, “My God, why hast thou forsaken me?” (Mt.
27:46, Mk. 15:34); in the gospel of Luke he adds, “Father,
forgive them, for they know not what they do” (Lk. 23:24).
According to all three accounts, Jesus died as a martyr to his
messianic mission.
Paul’s theme of the necessity of sharing in the sufferings
of Christ (Rom. 8:15) as a prerequisite of sharing in the glo-
ries of Christ was carried to extremes by some of the early
church fathers. Ignatius of Antioch went so far as to suggest
that martyrdom is the only way to become an authentic
Christian and thus ensure one’s arrival in the presence of
God. In fact, Ignatius willingly embraced his own martyr-
dom to the extent that he encouraged his fellow believers not
to do anything that might prevent it from taking place, so
convinced was he of the necessity of imitating “the passion
of my God” in order to ensure his salvation.
Jesus represents the Gospel’s embodiment of the con-
cept of the suffering servant. Seeing Jesus not only as the suf-
fering servant, but also as the Messiah, the Gospel writers
fuse these two roles into a synthesis that does not, however,
occur in the Hebrew scriptures, where the two remain dis-
tinct. A corollary to this fusion of the Messiah and suffering
servant is the view of Christ’s crucifixion as a vicarious atone-
ment both for the sinful nature of humankind as well as for
the sinful acts of each individual: “The Son of man came not
to be ministered unto, but to minister, and to give his life
as a ransom for many” (Mk. 10:45; see also Jn. 1:29, 3:5).
The writers of the synoptic gospels view Jesus as the Messiah
who has been sent into the world to bring about repentance
and salvation and to usher in God’s kingdom. Jesus’ predic-
tion of his own passion occurs throughout the synoptic gos-
pels: his particular passion that is depicted at the end of each
gospel portrays him as the being who, by his suffering, cruci-
fixion, and resurrection, becomes the symbol through whom
human beings may hope for a similar fate for themselves.
A different and distinctively Christian (as opposed to
Jewish) view of suffering can be found in the Pauline writ-
ings. In working out his theology, Paul strives to answer cer-
tain questions concerning the role of suffering. First, why is
there suffering in a world created by a good God who cares
for and loves his creatures? Second, why must God not only
allow the suffering of his chosen, but why must the best—
like Job, or the suffering servant, or the prophet—suffer such
grievous fates? Most particularly, for the Christian, why must
God’s plan include the passion, suffering, and death of the
individual designated to be the only begotten Son of God,
Jesus the Christ?
In his discussion of Pauline theology in Theology of the
New Testament, Rudolf Bultmann writes: “The death and
the resurrection of Christ are bound together in the unity of
one salvation-occurrence: ‘he who died’ is also ‘he who was
raised up’ (Romans 8:34; 2 Corinithians 5:15, 13:4). Similar-
ly, ‘as God raised Christ, so He will also raise us’ (see 1 Corin-
thians 6:14, 2 Corinthians 4:14).” Bultmann then claims that
the incarnation is also a part of that one single salvation pro-
cess, referring to biblical assertion that “he who gave himselfSUFFERING 8807