leads to the goal more effectively than the others. This type
of valuation has found a place in the philosophy of religion,
for example, in that of S ́an ̇ kara (c. 738–822 CE), who speaks
of a graduated way to God. The early Christian doctrine of
a praeparatio evangelica (preparation for the gospel) among
the Greeks and the Jews likewise belongs here to some extent,
though it loses its syncretist character due to its apologetic
function in relation to Judaism and paganism. On the other
hand, a developmental or evolutionary equivalence is fre-
quently admitted in the later stages of many religions (for ex-
ample, post-Islamic, post-Christian, and post-Shinto ̄), and,
more generally, in numerous new entities of the present time,
which, despite their claims to a higher truth, are forced to
admit that the truth-claims of their predecessors have a rela-
tive validity.
Amalgamation. This term describes a fusion that is
more irreversible than a simple mingling. The term mingling
is more appropriate as a description of the phenomenon of
syncretism. This is due to the origin of the term in ancient
physics, in which there was much discussion of combina-
tions, mixtures, and fusions, while the problem of the mass
or quantity that an element may no longer have if it is truly
part of a mixture remained ultimately unresolved. This is
very much in keeping with the dissolubility of a syncretism,
which can become operative at any time. Amalgamation, on
the other hand, describes a borderline case of syncretism and
to that extent is by and large equivalent to synthesis.
Exchange of qualities. First mention belongs here to the
exchange of qualities between the bodhisattvas of Maha ̄ya ̄na
Buddhism and the spirits and demons (including the kami
of Shinto ̄) of the peoples proselytized by this version of Bud-
dhism. It is not a matter of equivalent figures, so that we can-
not speak of parallelization or addition. Nor is it a matter of
gods on both sides though gods might arise from the process.
The bodhisattvas, now outfitted with qualities derived from
the relevant folklore, had the important function of showing
that redemption, for which the redemption accomplished by
the Buddha paves the way, is present in the traditions of the
proselytized peoples. To this end the figures involved must
resemble one another; on the other hand, they have no per-
sonal core, but rather their characteristics are interwoven as
in a jigsaw puzzle.
Identification. Wherever there is no theocrasy, identifi-
cation, which in principle supposes the same degree of iden-
tity on both sides, exists. It is difficult, however, to see that
the logical process represented by identification has actually
been at work in the linking of religious traditions. At most
it can be said that in literary syncretisms, the authors of
which have been trained in logic, identifications do occur,
for example, between central concepts of spirit, or between
these and personifications.
SYNCRETIST RELIGIONS. These are the high points of syn-
cretic processes inasmuch as they are not the first realizations
of syncretism but already presuppose less organized syncretic
fields. Such religions are as it were “metasyncretisms” or “sec-
ond-level” syncretisms.Mystery religions. “Mystery” as a cult form did not as
such have a syncretist character. This is clear from the so-
called mysteries of the ancient world: the Eleusinian myster-
ies, the mysteries of the Cabiri of Samothrace, or, in the pre-
Hellenistic period, those of Orpheus, Dionysos, and Cybele.
Nonetheless, the kind of mystery worship in which the most
important factor was the conformity in destiny between the
initiate and his or her deity did foster the development of
syncretic mystery religions in the Hellenistic period. The Isis
mysteries of Egypt presupposed the faith in Osiris that had
already acquired syncretic ties (though not related to the
mysteries) in the Serapis cult of the Ptolemies. The Mithra
mysteries of Asia Minor did not presuppose any ancient Ira-
nian mystery but only the god Mithra as such, albeit a
Mithra equated with Sol and Helios. In this instance, the sec-
ond-level syncretism emerged through the addition of a fur-
ther link with a mystery type of worship native to Asia
Minor. Something similar is to be said of the mysteries of
Sebazios, who had been an ancient Phrygian or Lydian god,
and of Jupiter Dolichenus, who had been the Baal of Doli-
che. Once the basic idea of the mysteries of Cybele and Attis
was integrated into the context provided by the idea of the
so-called dying and rising gods, these mysteries acquired a
different character than they had had before the introduction
of agriculture into Asia Minor.
Manichaeism. Syncretisms that were part Babylonian,
part Iranian, part Christian Hellenism were presupposed by
Manichaeism. Its founder, Mani, effected a further syncre-
tism by creating a unique system in which previously existing
linkages were interrelated in an entirely new and original
way. Manichaeism could therefore be described, depending
on those being addressed, as true Christianity, true gnosis,
true Zoroastrianism, true shamanism, true Buddhism, and
even true Taoism. At times these missionary efforts gave rise
to new syncretistic formations. There is doubt whether the
latter repeat earlier syncretisms—for example, the part
played by Buddhism in the rise of Manichaeism is disput-
ed—or, on the contrary, that they represent “third-level”
syncretisms. To a certain extent, therefore, Manichaeism was
the supreme syncretism, and it is not surprising that, given
its power of suggestion, people saw medieval Bogomilism
and Catharism as revivals of it. The latter, however, repre-
sented something different, namely, transformations of
Paulicianism that retained to some extent a dualistic charac-
ter, but were not on this account to be classified as properly
syncretist.
Gnosticism. Only Valentinianism and Sethianism can
be compared with Manichaeism in their degree of systematic
formulation. The other Gnostic doctrines were not systems
but myths; all however, were syncretic in the same degree,
despite differences in content. All were also preceded by
Greco-Oriental syncretisms, though this does not mean that
Greek teaching on spirit is to be understood as forming the8932 SYNCRETISM [FIRST EDITION]