coffee. In robusta coffee, the shot-hole borers Xylosandrusspp. (Coleoptera,
Scolytidae) are considered serious pests; they are controlled by several species
of Hymenoptera and Coleoptera (Dhanam et al. 1992a; Sreedharan et al.
1992). The white stem-borer Xylotrechus quadripes(Coleoptera, Cerambyci-
dae), a serious pest of arabica coffee, is controlled by a complex of 11
hymenopteran parasites in Vietnam (Le Pelley 1968) and by Allorhogas pallidi-
ceps(Hymenoptera, Braconidae) in India (Prakasan et al. 1986). The coffee
berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) is economically the most important of
several species of this genus that feed and live mostly on Coffeaspp. (Johan-
neson and Mansingh 1984). Several fungi have been reported as natural ene-
mies of H. hampei(Kumar et al. 1994; Balakrishnan et al. 1995); one of these,
Beauveria bassiana,is known to also attack several other species of coffee bor-
ers, including Xylosandrus compactusand Xylotrechus quadripes(Balakrishnan
et al. 1994).
Common shade trees are also attacked by borers (Dhanam et al. 1992b).
In several countries, Erythrinaspp. are attacked by Te rastia meticulosalis(Lep-
idoptera, Pyralidae), which is in turn controlled by Aparkeles leptourain India
and Bracon terestiaein Congo (Samuel and Bhat 1988). Other Lepidopteran
borers (Hepialidae) attacking robusta coffee and several shade tree species
include Sahyadrassus malabaricusin India (Balakrishnan et al. 1988) and Phas-
sus damorin Indonesia (Le Pelley 1968). Grevillea robusta,one of the most
common shade trees in most coffee-growing regions of India, is attacked by a
whole complex of borers (Sreedharan et al. 1991).
More than 60 species of scale insects and mealybugs (Homoptera, Coc-
coidea) have been reported in coffee plantations, but only 20 are known as
pests (Le Pelley 1968). In India, some 17 coccoid species have been recorded
on coffee (Chacko 1979). In Guatemala, seven scale species are commonly
found in coffee plantations; some are also found on the weed complex or on
shade trees (Garcia et al. 1995). Scales and mealybug populations are con-
trolled by several Hymenoptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera species. For
instance, the white-tailed mealybug (Ferrisia virgata, Homoptera, Pseudococ-
cidae), a cosmopolitan and highly polyphagous pest of robusta coffee, is
controlled by eight parasitoid species and 24 predator species in India (Bala-
krishnan et al. 1991). Coccids and pseudococcids are associated with ants all
over the world. About 27 ant species have been recorded in association with
homoptera attacking coffee (Venkataramaiah and Rehman 1989).
Leaf-miners are occasionally important among the various pests damaging
coffee foliage. In India, several species of minor importance are controlled by
a complex of hymenopteran parasites (Balakrishnan et al. 1986). Thrips, such
as Retithrips syriacus(Thysanoptera, Thripidae), have been reported as minor
pests of coffee in Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, and India (Kumar et al. 1984).
Sixteen termite species attack coffee bushes and their shade trees around the
world (Kashyap et al. 1984). In India, five termite species have been observed
214 III. The Biodiversity of Agroforestry Systems