294 chapter seven
and who is frequently referred to in history books as the founder of
modern Egypt. Prior to Ali, the Napoleonic expedition brought with
it features of Western development that was not known to Muslims
before. The Arabic press was an obvious example. Brought by
Bonaparte, the Arabic press was not to be used for the development
of the learning process of the Egyptians as much as it was for the
publishing of leaflets in Arabic in the 1798 French propaganda cam-
paign that aimed at questioning the populace and winning their sup-
port. Later, after Bonaparte, the press served as the corner stone in
establishing a full fledged press house in the Cairo quarter of Bulaq,
Maktabat Bulaq (ibid.). The press was the first of its kind as it was
a novelty to Muslims in Egypt and elsewhere, and as such it was a
demonstrable example of Western modernization. Furthermore, the
French army brought with it scientists and interpreters who with the
discovery of Stone of Rashìd, were able to unravel the Hieroglyphic
alphabets. The seemingly French preparation for a long stay in the
Egyptian soil signaled an abrupt end after the destruction of the
French fleet by the British navy and the French defeat in the bat-
tle of Alexandria in 1801. In eighty years or so the British army
was to land at the Egyptian Mediterranean ports, to remain there
for almost eighty five years.
Impressed by the French example of modernization, Muœammad
Ali embarked on a programme of reform that, though it was harsh,
brought the country out of the backwardness of the Mamlùks. In his
zeal for modernisation he established schools of engineering, in 1817,
and another of medicine, in 1827, with teachers imported mainly
from France. Military and educational missions were brought from
France and Italy, and missions from the Egyptians were sent to study
in France, Italy, Austria and England at the cost of the state. Politically,
he rid himself from the Mamlùks once and for all by arranging what
is known until today in the schools’ history books as the Slaughter of
the Citadel. Ostensibly invited for a party in the Cairo’s well-fortified
Citadel, the Mamlùks were directed to a narrow passage where they
were slain and slaughtered by his guards. With the exception of the
very few, the lives of all the Mamlùks of Egypt were put to an end.
In his economic policies, Muœammad Ali was equally harsh. He
confiscated all the land of Egypt and declared himself the sole pro-
prietor of the land, and by creating a monopolistic ownership of land
and products he was the only producer, manufacturer and contractor.
The conditions of work for the conscription labour for irrigation and