Duringmostof the 20thcenturyfoodsafetywasguaranteedby process
conditions as describedabove,combinedwithhygienicmanufacturing practices,
and microbiological testingof the finalproduct to verifythe process.Originally
therewereattempts to routinely test preparedfoodsfor all pathogenicorganisms
and toxinsof concern, but that approach was impracticalowingto the large
number of possible organismsand toxinsin mostfoods. In the 1950sand 1960s
the approach thus shifted towards the testing for indicator organisms': organismsthat are not pathogenicbut that wouldindicate under-processingor recontaminationof the food.Escherichia coliwas oftenusedas an indicator organism.Totalaerobiccount'was another frequentlyusedindicatorfor under-
processing or recontamination. It was,however, realised that microbiological
testingof finalproducts had its limitations.If one wantsto ensure that a target
pathogenis absent froma certainbatchof food,uneconomically largenumbers
of samplesmust be taken. This led to the understandingthat food safety
management should not be basedon controlof the final product, but on control
of the food productionprocess. This invoked the introduction of quality
management systems suchas GMP(goodmanufacturingpractices) and HACCP
(HazardAnalysisCriticalControl Point)in the 1970sand onwards.
Hygienicmanufacturingpractices, suchas the use of cleanableequipment
and personal hygieneof the operators, havebeenusedfor manyyears. Theiruse,
however, had beennon-systematicand non-verifiable. The quality management
systemGMP aimsto place thesemanufacturing practices, whichare the results
of longpracticalexperience,in a moresystematicframework.Still,the GMP
systemis largelysubjectiveand qualitativein its benefits.It has therefore been
extendedby the introductionof HACCP. HACCP is a systematicapproach to the
identification,assessmentand control of hazards at a foodprocessing plant.
HACCP was originally developedaround 1970for the NASAspaceprogram, to
guarantee 100%foodsafety.In the 1970sit became mandatoryfor canned food
production in the USA, but onlyin the late 1980sits applicationwas broadened
to variouscategories of canned and non-cannedfoodsinsideand outsidethe
USA(Corlett, 1998).
An important step in the implementation of HACCP is the systematic
assessment of possible hazardsin foodsand theirassociatedrisks.Increaseduse
of HACCP in the 1990s thusled to an increased needfor knowledgeon
systematic risk assessmentin foodprocessing.At the sametime,the develop-
mentof risk assessmentwas stronglystimulated whenin 1995the WorldTrade
Organization(WTO)was establishedand a free tradein safe foodwas agreed.
Thiswasformalised in the Agreementon the Applicationof Sanitaryand
PhytosanitaryMeasures,the SPS agreement(Anon,1995). Thisagreement
requires that foodsafetylegislationbe scientificallybasedand that the process
of risk assessmentbe applied, for example whenusingmicrobiologicalcriteria
for controllingimportedfoods. The SPS agreementalso requires that countries
shouldtakeinto accountthe risk assessmenttechniquedevelopedby relevant
international organisations. As a result of this the Codex Alimentarius
Commission(CAC)of the United Nations Foodand AgricultureOrganisation
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