Leninism’.^3 We should note in passing that neither equality nor indi-
vidual rights were principles that figured significantly in this curious
hybrid.
In the field of international relations a similar fusion occurred,
merging Marxist–Leninist and deep-seated historically Chinese beliefs
and values. One such belief related to the relative status of polities.
Despite nominal membership of the Western system of formally equal
sovereign nations, and of the communist commonwealth of fraternal
socialist states, China has always had difficulty in seeing itself as just
another nation-state. This is because China, in reality, remains both
the last great empire, and a civilisation whose historical pretensions to
superiority are deeply embedded in the national psyche. In the current
world order, moreover, it is as obvious to the Chinese as to anyone
else that nation-states are not equal, though Beijing has always been
punctilious in treating all equally in a formal sense—just as under the
tribute system all vassal kingdoms were treated equally and impar-
tially by a benevolent emperor. The world of nation-states that
China entered in reality consisted of a hierarchy of powers, which
for China was a hierarchy of international status. If China was truly
to stand up and erase the humiliation of the ‘century of shame’, then
it was imperative to regain international standing and respect. This
was the unquestioned national goal for all Chinese leaders, and it was
a goal that had important implications for the region. For if China
was to become a global great power, it would have to be recognised
as such within its own immediate ‘sphere of influence’. In other words,
a regional political order would have to evolve in which China was the
dominant power, which of course meant that the presence of outside
imperialist powers would have to be reduced to a minimum.
A second element of the traditional Chinese view of inter-
national relations that carried through to the People’s Republic was
belief in the influence and superiority of Chinese example. In the
past, the virtue of the emperor provided the supreme model for others
to follow. The revolutionary leadership of the PRC believed their
Communism and the Cold War