to trace population movements because the names assigned to tribal
groups change. Broadly speaking, however, population movements
into what is now southern China came from two directions: from the
east, as Chinese displaced Yue peoples inland from the south China
coastal provinces; and from Sichuan to the north. Tribal peoples, in
turn, were forced either to move into more marginal mountainous
country, or to migrate further west and south.
Ironically, it was the Tang policy of consolidating minor king-
doms by favouring specific tribal chiefs over their rivals that resulted
in formation of the first substantial indigenous kingdom in Yunnan. In
the early eighth century, the southernmost of six principalities or zhao
in the vicinity of the Er-hai lake gained ascendancy over the others
and established its capital at Dali. At first the kings of Nanzhao
accepted their status as inner barbarians within the Tang empire.
Tribute was offered and respects paid. But in 750, when king Ko-lo-
feng failed to obtain imperial redress for the extortions of Chinese
officials, he took his own revenge. A Nanzhao army occupied Tang ter-
ritory to the east, then convincingly defeated two Chinese armies sent
to punish him. Rebellion in China then intervened to distract Tang
attention, and Nanzhao was left to consolidate its independence. At
its greatest extent, Nanzhao comprised all of Yunnan, western
Guizhou, southern Sichuan and as far south as northern Laos and
Thailand and northeastern Burma.^3
The independence of Nanzhao, and its successor kingdom of
Dali, lasted six centuries before being snuffed out with relatively little
resistance. At first Nanzhao was a powerful regional kingdom, invad-
ing Burma from 757 to 763 CE, Sichuan several times between 829
and 873, and Jiao-zhi (northern Vietnam, but then part of China)
between 861 and 866. None of these invasions succeeded in signifi-
cantly increasing the territory of Nanzhao. Central Sichuan would
have been the most valuable prize, and control over the Red River
delta would have given Nanzhao access to the sea. Both were vital for
the Tang to defend, which they did. Nor was Nanzhao able to control
Mongol expansionism