mission to the Yuan court in 1280. Others followed until 1299, though
Lopburi seems to have retained its independence into the 1340s before
being incorporated into the expanding Siamese kingdom of Ayutthaya.
In return, Chinese envoys were sent to Southeast Asian capitals, a
famous example being Zhou Daguan’s visit to Angkor in 1296–97.
The final Mongol thrust into Southeast Asia by sea was even
more daring, but just as unproductive. In 1289 Khubilai sent personal
envoys to Java to demand that King Kertanegara of Singhasari, in the
east of the island, should acknowledge Chinese suzerainty. Java had
sent three missions to the Song, in 992, 1109 and 1131. What the last
two brought was not recorded, but it seems clear from the list of valu-
able goods presented by the first mission that its principal purpose was
trade. The Javanese asked for horses, saddles and weapons, which the
Chinese gave in return, along with ‘very rich’ gifts of gold and silk.^6 It
was one thing to enter into diplomatic relations in order to trade,
however, but quite another to accept subject status. The Mongol
envoys returned home ‘with disfigured faces’, which probably meant
that their noses had been sliced off.
Such an insult cried for vengeance. In 1293 Khubilai dispatched
a war fleet to Java to punish Kertanegara. This was the first great pro-
jection of Chinese sea power into maritime Southeast Asia. In the
meantime, however, events in Java had moved on. Kertanegara and
several of his loyal followers were assassinated by a disgruntled vassal,
who promptly declared himself king. Soon after, the Mongol armada
reached Tuban, a port on the north central Javanese coast that had
once sent its own tribute/trade missions to China. The arrival of this
substantial force presented Prince Vijaya, Kertanegara’s son-in-law and
designated heir, with a golden opportunity. In return for accepting
Chinese suzerainty, he sought Mongol assistance in defeating the
usurper. The Mongol commander agreed and the usurper was duly
crushed. Vijaya then turned on his allies, picking off scattered contin-
gents of the Mongol force until the Mongol position became untenable
and the fleet was forced to withdraw.^7
Mongol expansionism