References: Bradbury, Jim, Philip Augustus: King of
France, 1180–1223 (London: Longman, 1998); Baldwin,
John W., The Government of Philip Augustus: Foundations
of French Royal Power in the Middle Ages (Berkeley: Uni-
versity of California Press, 1986); Luchaire, Achille, Social
France at the Time of Philip Augustus (New York: Henry
Holt, 1912).
Philip VI (Philippe the Fortunate) (1293–1350)
French king
Also known as Philippe the Fortunate, Philip was born
in 1293, the son of Charles of Valois, the French prince
and military leader who fought a series of wars in Eu-
rope, and his wife, Margaret of Naples-Sicily. His fa-
ther’s sister, Isabella, married the English king edWard
ii, and their son rose to become King edWard iii. In
1315, Philip was titled as the count of Le Mans, and
upon his father’s death, he became the count of Valois
and Anjou. In February 1328, when King Charles IV,
Philip’s cousin, died without issue, Philip and his cousin
Edward III both claimed the crown of France. A group
of French nobles urged Philip to take the throne, as they
refused to accept an English king reigning over France.
Philip relied on the Salic law, which forbade any female
or the descendants of females to ascend to the throne.
On 29 May 1328, he was crowned in the cathedral at
Reims.
Almost from the start of his reign, Philip was in-
volved in a number of conflicts, and although historians
call attention to his fighting a series of battles that were
part of the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453), he was in-
volved in fighting before that war started. For instance,
when Louis of Nevers, the count of Flanders, requested
his assistance to fight the Flemings, Philip formed an
army and defeated them at Cassel on 23 August 1328.
But the growing differences between Philip and Edward
III came to a head in 1337, when Philip declared that
Edward had forfeited his right to the lands he claimed
in Guienne in western France. In response, Edward de-
clared that he was the rightful king of France, a move
that set off the Hundred Years’ War. For the next 116
years, England and France fought for control of the
French throne. Starting with the naval battle of L’Ecluse,
better known as the battle of Sluys (24 June 1340), in
which the French were beaten badly, with a loss of some
30,000 men, Philip incurred defeat after defeat. The
English were commanded by Sir Robert Morley and
Richard Fitzalan, and at Morlay (30 September 1342),
William de Bohun defeated Charles de Blois.
The numerous clashes between the two powers cul-
minated in a collision at Crécy-en-Ponthieu on 26 Au-
gust 1346, when a small force under Edward III clashed
with Philip’s forces of approximately 30,000 men. This
was the first major battle in which English archers were
used to attack the main French troops. English losses are
unknown, but French casualties were about 10,000 reg-
ular soldiers, 1,200 knights, and 11 princes killed, which
historian George Bruce notes was “a total exceeding the
whole English force.” The king of Bohemia was among
the dead; total casualties were upward of 31,000. With
the defeat, Philip retreated to the castle of Labroye. Two
years later, France was struck by the bubonic plague (the
“Black Death”), which destroyed the national economy.
Philip was struggling with the English army’s victo-
ries and the plague when he died at Nogent-le-roi on 22
August 1350. He was buried in the Saint Denis Basilica
near Paris, and his second wife, Blanche de Navarre, was
interred next to him when she died in 1398. He was suc-
ceeded as king of France by his son, Jean, from his first
marriage. Although almost his entire reign was marked
by war, Philip is probably best remembered for his defeat
at Crécy, where the long bow demonstrated the vulner-
ability of armor.References: Barnie, John, War in Medieval English Soci-
ety (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1974); Duby,
Georges, France in the Middle Ages 987–1460 (Paris:
Blackwell, 1987); Palmer, John Joseph Norman, England,
France and Christendom (London: University of North
Carolina Press, 1972); Bruce, George, “Crécy,” in Col-
lins Dictionary of Wars (Glasgow, Scotland: HarperCollins
Publishers, 1995), 65.Phocion (ca. 402–317 b.c.) Athenian statesman
and general
Little is known of Phocion’s life. He was apparently born
about 402 b.c. of humble origins and received his edu-
cation from Plato and Xenocrates. He joined the Athe-
nian military soon thereafter and fought at the Battle
of Naxos (376 b.c.) under Chabrias with great distinc-
tion. He helped defend Euboea in 348 and 341 b.c., and
he resisted Philip of Macedon at Aeschines in 343 and
again at Byzantium in 340–339 b.c. After the Athenians
were heavily defeated in the Battle of Chaeronea (338phocion