traditional darkroom manipulations on the compu-
ter screen and further increases the ease of composit-
ing multiple images and changing color and tonal
variations, and may mimic special darkroom effects
such as reticulation and posterization.
Toning and non-silver processes alter the basic
chemical and color of a printed image. Toning can
add a specific colorcast or alter the intensification
of the tonal range. Non-silver processes such as
platinum, palladium, gum bichromate, cyanotype,
and hybrids of the photographic and silkscreen
mediums further manipulate the photographic
image. Spotting (retouching the print to eliminate
dust and scratches), bleaching (lightening or elim-
inating part of a photographic print), and hand-
coloring photographs are manipulative techniques
that occur after the darkroom process.
The uses of manipulation in photography occur
for aesthetic and commercial purposes. Fine-art
prints created from many negatives mimicked the
traditional narrative paintings of neoclassical artists,
and manipulation in the darkroom was a character-
istic of photographers such as Man Ray and La ́szlo ́
Moholy-Nagy, who used photograms and the
Sabattier effect extensively in their work. Multiple
exposures in the camera were a staple of Harry
Callahan’s images during his time in Chicago in
the 1950s and 1960s, and Jerry Uelsmann’s multiple
printing techniques incorporate up to 20 enlargers
and image fragments into one composite work. Digi-
tal manipulations are also utilized in contemporary
fine art pieces. Commercial photography, such as
fashion and product advertisements, utilizes high-
contrast images, cross-processing of color films,
and retouching through computerized and tradi-
tional darkroom techniques to produce a flawless
final image. Photojournalism is one area of photo-
graphy where manipulation is rare because of ethical
reasons, and journalistic integrity forbids modifica-
tions of images published as factual documents.
JenniferHeadley
Seealso:Callahan, Harry; Cropping; Dada; Dark-
room; Digital Photography; Dodging; Ethics and
Photography; Film: High-Contrast; Film: Infrared;
Filters; Hand Coloring and Hand Toning; Image Con-
struction; Infrared Photography; Lens; Man Ray;
Masking; Moholy-Nagy, La ́szlo ́; Multiple Exposures
and Printing; Non-Silver Processes; Photogram; Sand-
wiched Negatives; Solarization; Uelsmann, JerryFurther Reading
Adams, Ansel and Robert Baker.The Ansel Adams Photo-
graphy Series 1: The Camera. Boston: Little, Brown and
Company, 1991.
Adams, Ansel and Robert Baker.The Ansel Adams Photo-
graphy Series 2: The Negative. Boston: Little, Brown and
Company, 1981.
Adams, Ansel and Robert Baker.The Ansel Adams Photo-
graphy Series 3: The Print. Boston: Little, Brown and
Company, 1983.
Brugioni, Dino A.Photo Fakery: The History and Techni-
ques of Photographic Deception and Manipulation.
Dulles, VA: Brassey’s, 1999.
Gassan, Arnold.Handbook for Contemporary Photography.
Rochester, NY: Light Impressions Corporation, 1977.
Stone, Jim.Darkroom Dynamics: A Guide to Creative Dark-
room Techniques. Newton, MA: Focal Press, 1985.
Vestal, David.The Craft of Photography. New York: Dor-
set Press/Marboro Books: 1978.ROBERT MAPPLETHORPE
American
While he did not begin his artistic career with a
camera, Robert Mapplethorpe’s photographs
earned him a reputation that transcended the
boundaries of the art world and permeated popular
culture. This notoriety was due partly to the inher-
ent strength of his images but also a result of heated
controversies over the transgressive nature of his
subject matter. Mapplethorpe’s body of work—lar-
gely comprised of nudes, flowers, and portraits—is
characterized by a remarkable clarity of vision that
emphasizes a sensual formalism. His thematic scope
is exceptionally consistent, as the themes that occu-
pied him as a young student remained with him
throughout his relatively brief artistic career.MAPPLETHORPE, ROBERT