the traditional darkroom for singular and multiple
printing techniques.
Multiple exposures and printing are techniques
that have been used by fine art photographers since
the invention of the medium. Nineteenth-century
master Henry Peach Robinson incorporated many
individual negatives into his fine art montage pieces,
and multiple exposure was a hallmark of the photo-
graphic avant-garde in Paris, Vienna, Munich, and
Berlin between the world wars. Edmund Kesting and
Bauhaus master La ́szlo ́Moholy-Nagy were notable
practitioners of multiple exposure and printing tech-
niques. More recently, in the 1950s multiple expo-
sures in the camera were practiced by Harry
Callahan and encouraged in his many students at
Chicago’s Institute of Design as well as Louis Fauer
in his nighttime photographs of New York City.
Jerry Uelsmann and John Paul Caponigro are two
late-twentieth century masters of multiple printing,
Uelsmann utilizing up to 20 enlargers in his tradi-
tional darkroom and Caponigro a master of digital
compositing with tools such as Adobe Photoshop.
JenniferHeadleySeealso:Burning-In; Callahan, Harry; Camera: 35
mm; Camera: An Overview; Camera: Digital; Cam-
era: Point and Shoot; Dodging; Enlarger; Institute of
Design; Kesting, Edmund; Manipulation; Moholy-
Nagy, La ́szlo ́; Sandwiched Negatives; Uelsmann,
JerryFurther Reading
Barnier, John, ed.Coming Into Focus: A Step-By-Step Guide
to Alternative Photographic Printing Processes. San
Francisco, CA: Chronicle Books, 2000.
Blacklow, Laura.New Dimensions In Photo Imaging. Bos-
ton, MA: Focal Press, 2000.
Caponigro, John Paul.Adobe Photoshop Master Class. Ber-
keley, CA: Peachpit Press, 2000.
Graves, Carson.The Elements of Black and White Printing.
Boston, MA: Focal Press, 2000.
Hirsch, Robert.Photographic Possibilities: The Expressive
Use of Ideas, Materials, and Processes. Boston, MA:
Focal Press, 1991.
James, Christopher. Alternative and Non-Silver Photo-
graphic Processes: Working Notes. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Delmar Publishers, 2000.
Nettles, Bea.Breaking the Rules: A Photo Media Cookbook.
Rochester, NY: Inky Press Productions, 1992.
Stone, Jim.Darkroom Dynamics: A Guide to Creative Dark-
room Techniques. Boston, MA: Focal Press, 1979.VIK MUNIZ
Brazilian
The career of Vik Muniz echoes what nineteenth-
century critic Charles Baudelaire called the photogra-
pher during his own era: ‘‘operator.’’ Muniz’s artistic
strategies connect him with this description in that he
uses photography as a means to an end that is not
strictly photographic. The pictures for which Muniz
is known in fact consist of images made from choco-
late, sugar, dust, ink, wire, cotton, urban detritus,
and other materials that are then photographed.
This modus operandi places Muniz’s photography
within a lineage of early twentieth-century photogra-
phers and artists such as Man Ray and his photo-
graphs of dust, and Salvador Dali’s and Brassaı ̈’s
pictures of found objects that they called involuntary
sculptures. Muniz is also linked to conceptual artists
who used photography as documentation of an
event, performance, and as supplement to an idea.
Yet Muniz’s work is as emphatically about photo-
graphy’s ability to mimetically reproduce the world
as it is about its power of illusion. This dichotomy is
one of the impulses that drive Muniz’s art, though to
construe it as being solely about perception is to
undermine its formal and conceptual rigor. Muniz
has emphasized that his work is more than visual
sleight of hand: ‘‘I like illusions that say something
about reality or, at least, our ability to cope with it’’
(Muniz,Seeing is Believing1998).
Beginning his artistic career as a sculptor, Muniz’s
focus was on creating objects. As his sculptures
became more like visual puns imbued with double
meanings, Muniz progressively reconfigured sculp-
ture from its three-dimensional format into a two-MUNIZ, VIK