Pavao (1955–), Antonio Ju ́lio Duarte (1965–), and
Jose ́Mac ̧as de Carvalho (1960–); the isolated land-
scapes of Jose ́ Afonso Furtado (1955–) and
Augusto Alves da Silva (1963–); and the gardens
of Domingo Caldeira (1953–). Closer to the second
‘‘ploe’’ are the social documentary photography
published in the weeklyIndependienteby Ines Gon-
c ̧alves (1964–), Daniel Blaufuks (1963–), Joa ̃o
Tabarra (1966–), and Ce ́u Guarda (1960–); or the
atmospheric work of Albano da Silva Pereira
(1950–). Finally, it should be noted that Gulben-
kian Foundation and the National Archives of
Photography of the IPPC have consolidated their
collection project (first exhibited in 1990), in which
Jorge Calado has gathered significant examples of
Portuguese and international photography.
ManuelSantosSeealso:Capa, Robert; Censorship; Documentary
Photography; Photography in Europe: An Overview;
PictorialismFurther Reading
Fontcuberta, Joan.Idas y Caos. Madrid: Ministerio de
Cultura, 1984.
Mondejar, Publio Lo ́pez.Las fuentes de la memoria(vol. I,
II & III). Barcelona: Lunwerg Editores, 1989–1992.
Santos, Manuel, ed.Cuatro Direcciones, Fotografı ́a Espa-
n ̃ola Contempora ́nea 1970–1990. Madrid: Lunwerg Edi-
tores & Ministerio de Cultura, 1991.
Sena, Antonio.Una historia de la fotografı ́a en Portugal
1839–1991. Lisbon: Imprensa Nacional & Casa da
Moeda, 1991.
Several authors,Buques en el muelle/Billetes de ande ́n.
Madrid: Cı ́rculo de BB.AA., 1992.JO SPENCE
British
Jo Spence became a major figure in British pho-
tography in the early 1980s. Although she had a
long and varied career in photography, the real
blossoming of her personal work was in this period
and was tragically cut short by her untimely death
in 1992.
An energetic and prolific photographer, teacher,
writer, public persona, and self-styled ‘‘cultural
sniper,’’ Spence was enormously influential, partic-
ularly for a generation of young women photogra-
phers. Working outside the mainstream of both
commercial and artistic practice for much of her
life, she brought personal experience, political
understanding, and critical theory together to
inform her work.
Spence said that she produced her work ‘‘to
evolve new thinking processes whereby I took and
used photographs to help me ask questions rather
than to reiterate what I thought I knew already.’’
Her work consistently addressed political and per-
sonal issues through a series of issue-based projects
and is marked by a direct, confrontational, style
frequently undercut by humor. Central to these
projects were concerns of health, class, power and
powerlessness, identity, memory, the family, and
the psyche.
She drew from a wide range of theory from the
educational ideas of Paulo Freire to contemporary
thinkers Michel Foucault and Louis Althusser; she
also drew from her research into photographic and
film history, including the work of avant-garde
Soviet filmmaker Dziga Vertov, John Heartfield,
and the worker photography movement, and from
her collaborations with practitioners from a range
of disciplines. Equally important, however, was her
desire to make images that were accessible and
empowering.
Jo Spence was born in 1934, the child of work-
ing-class and trade unionist parents, and brought
up in London. As a child during World War II, she
was evacuated to the country, an experience which
was to be tellingly recreated in her 1988 work
Evacuee, in which she is labelled like a piece of
luggage (part ofThe Crisis Project: Scenes of the
Crime, made with David Roberts). On leaving
school, she trained as a secretary and in later
years was frequently to rely on her secretarial skills
to support herself while working on photographic
projects. She took up photography while working
as a ‘‘girl Friday’’ for photographers, and for sev-SPAIN AND PORTUGAL, PHOTOGRAPHY IN