While a photographer need not be a scuba diver
to take underwater pictures, diving appears to be
the preferred method of accessing the underwater
environment. The self-contained nature of scuba
equipment allows the photographer a vast amount
of freedom to maneuver underwater. Unlike those
dependent on a snorkel or air from the surface,
the diving photographer can remain underwater
for extended periods of time, depending on the
depth reached. Depths beyond 140 feet require
special training and particular mixes of com-
pressed gases; as such, they are out of the reach
of recreational divers. Nevertheless, a wealth of
photographic material exists within the range of
recreational depths. It is crucial, however, that the
diver be completely comfortable underwater
beforeoccupying him or herself with aquatic pho-
tography. Once the mechanics of diving become
second nature, the diver is free to concentrate on
the development of photographic skills. Only an
experienced diver will be able to safely and suc-
cessfully produce masterful underwater photo-
graphs. Such images, like their predecessors, will
continue to enchant and captivate a willing audi-
ence for years to come.
A. KristaSykes
Seealso:Camera: An Overview; Camera: 35 mm;
Edgerton, Harold E.; National GeographicFurther Reading
Berwin, David, and David Barber.Creative Techniques in
Underwater Photography. London: B.T. Batsford, 1982.
Cousteau, Jacque Yves.The Silent World. New York: Harper, 1953.
Hass, Hans.Diving to Adventure: The Daredevil Story of Hun-
ters Under the Sea. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1951.
Kohler, Annemarie, and Danja Kohler.The Underwater
Photography Handbook. London: New Holland, 1998;
Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole, 1999.
Roessler, Carl.Mastering Underwater Photography. New
York: William Morrow and Co., 1984.
Rowlands, Peter.The Underwater Photographer’s Hand-
book. London: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1983.
Schulke, Flip.Underwater Photography for Everyone. Eng-
lewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1978.
Webster, Mike.The Art and Technique of Underwater Pho-
tography. Surrey, England: Fountain Press, 1998.PHOTOGRAPHY IN THE UNITED
STATES: THE MIDWEST
Although the broad outlines of photography in the
Midwest conform to the larger trends and develop-
ments that shaped twentieth century photography
in the United States, during the past 100 years
photographers have discovered that the ever chan-
ging landscape of the American Midwest offered a
unique and verdant place to document. Inspired by
its characteristically flat topography, stoic and
hearty people, and continually modernizing urban
spaces, these photographers captured the spirit,
events, and identity of America’s heartland.
Whether recording the built environment—ran-
ging from the most humble dwellings to landmark
architectural structures and industrial complexes,
as did many documentary and architectural photo-
graphers, or seeking inspiration in the faces of its
people during hard times, in celebration, or at rest,
as registered by portrait photographers, and others,
photographers working in the Midwestern region
found ever fruitful subjects for their camera. Two
photographic genres, however, can be said to have
developed or made significant aesthetic advances in
the Midwest: the so-called ‘‘Chicago School’’ fea-
turing the street works of Harry Callahan and those
associated with the Institute of Design, and archi-
tectural photography.1910s
The first major figure in photography to work in the
Midwest was Clarence H. White. Although asso-
ciated with New York and the Photo-Secession, it
was White’s founding of the Newark, Ohio Camera
Club that launched his career and spread the prevail-
ing Pictorialist style throughout that state and even-
tually, through the production of a catalogue, acrossUNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY