light is lost. Filter factors are measured in powers
of two, corresponding to stops of light needed to
compensate for the light loss (see figure). Filter
factors can vary with the light source being used.
CHRISTYESISSONSeealso:Adams, Ansel; Camera 1: Overview; Cam-
era 2: 35 mm; Color Theory; Exposure; Film; Film:
Infrared; Infrared Photography
Further Reading
Adams, Ansel. The Negative (Book 2). Boston: Little
Brown & Co., 1995.
Eastman Kodak.Kodak Photographic Filters Handbook.
Saunders, 1996.
Eastman Kodak.Using Filters (The Kodak Workshop Ser-
ies). Sterling, 1996.
Kingslake, Rudolf.Optics in Photography. SPIE (Interna-
tional Society for Optical Engineers), 2000.
Langford, Michael.Basic Photography. New York: Focal
Press, 2000.
London, Barbara and John Upton.Photography. 6th ed.
Longman Addison-Wesley, 1998.
Meehan, Joseph.The Photographer’s Guide to Using Filters.
Amphoto, 1999.
Schaefer, John.An Ansel Adams Guide: Basic Techniques of
Photography, Book 1. Boston: Little Brown & Co., 1992.
Stroebel, Leslie D.Basic Photographic Materials and Pro-
cesses. 7th ed. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000.
White, Laurie.Infrared Photography Handbook. Amherst
Media, 1995.FINE ARTS PRESSES
Throughout the twentieth century, publishing houses
and independent entrepreneurs established fine arts
presses around the world, publishing art anthologies,
art history books, artists’ books, broadsides, cata-
logues raisonne ́s, editioned prints, exhibition cata-
logues, monographs, multiples, and photographic
essays. In the production of such works, each press
defined itself through the unique reproduction, print-
ing, and distribution methods chosen for a project.
The diversity and reach of these presses grew in
tandem with the receptivity of the general readership
to visual books and limited editions. Hundreds
of commercial and private presses, along with mu-
seums, universities, foundations, and ateliers began
creating book lists and imprints specifically for
photographically illustrated works. The art pub-
lishing niche expanded as imported and exported
books, predominantly between the United States
and Europe, brought international exposure to ar-
tists and publishers.
New avenues of artistic and critical dialogues
arose as photo-books proliferated, influencing art
photographers, collectors, curators, and historians.
The book format offered both a portable viewing
venue and a level of mass exposure for photogra-
phers that would presumably eclipse that of a single
gallery or museum exhibition. A partnership bet-
ween publisher and artist, leading to the creation of
an art book, often represented both a united crea-
tive vision and the desire for either a wider or more
exclusive audience. The resulting work alternately
was considered a stand-alone art object, or as
French art historian Andre ́ Malraux famously
wrote in his 1953 bookThe Voices of Silence, ‘‘a
museum without walls.’’
The photo-book held special appeal for artists,
art collectors, bibliophiles, curators, gallerists, and
print-houses. Photographers now had an entirely
new set of creative possibilities in architecting a
book—from its physical structure, paper quality,
and image sequencing to its text, typography, and
graphic design. The images selected for a book
could be read as iterations of the original works,
with the associated differences in size, tonal quality,Filter Factor Stops lost
10
21
42
83
16 4
32 5
64 6
FINE ARTS PRESSES