- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Epidemiology Program Office, Division of Public
Health Surveillance and Informatics. Case definitions for infectious conditions under public health
surveillance. Part 1. Case definitions. For nationally notifiable infectious disease. Available at http://
http://www.cdc.gov/ncphi/disss/PHS/infdis.htm. Accessed November 28, 2008 - The Working Group on Severe Streptococcal Infections. Defining the group A Streptococcal toxic
shock syndrome: rationale and consensus definition. JAMA 1993; 269:390–391. - Chesney PJ, Davis JP, Purdy WK, et al. Clinical manifestation of toxic shock syndrome. JAMA 1981;
246:741–748. - Shands KN, Schmid GP, Dan BB, et al. Toxic shock syndrome in menstruating women. Association
with tampon use and Staphylococcus aureus and clinical features in 52 cases. N Engl J Med 1980;
303:1436–1442. - Parsonnet J. Non menstrual toxic shock syndrome: new insights into diagnosis, pathogenesis, and
treatment. Curr Clin Top Infect Dis 1996; 16:1–20. - Kain KC, Schulzer M, Chow AW. Clinical spectrum of nonmenstrual toxic shock syndrome (TSS):
comparison with menstrual TSS by multivariate analyses. Clin Infect Dis 1993; 16:100–106. - Davis JP, Osterholm MT, Helms CM, et al. Tri-state toxic shock syndrome study. II. Clinical and
laboratory findings. J Infect Dis 1982; 145:441–448. - Davis JP, Chesney PJ, Wand PJ, et al. Toxic-shock syndrome: epidemiologic features, recurrence, risk
factors, and prevention. N Engl J Med 1980; 303:1429–1435. - Stolz SJ, Davis JP, Vergeront JM, et al. Development of serum antibody to toxic shock toxin among
individuals with toxic shock syndrome in Wisconsin. J Infect Dis 1985; 151:883–889. - Stevens DL. Invasive group A Streptococcus infections. Clin Infect Dis 1992; 14:2–13.
- Johnson DR, Stevens DL, Kaplan EL. Epidemiologic analysis of group A Streptococcus serotypes
associated with severe systemic infections, rheumatic fever, or uncomplicated pharyngitis. J Infect
Dis 1992; 166:374–382. - Teglund AN, Thulin P, Gan BS. Evidence for superantigen involvement in severe group A
streptococcal tissue infections. J Infect Dis 2001; 184:853–860. - Hackett SP, Stevens DL. Streptococcal toxic shock syndrome: synthesis of tumor necrosis factor and
interleukin-1 by monocytes stimulated with pyrogenic exotoxin A and streptolysin O. J Infect Dis
1992; 165:879–885. - Fast DJ, Schlievert PM, Nelson RD. Toxin shock syndrome-associated staphylococcal and
streptococcal pyrogenic toxins are potent inducers of tumor necrosis factor production. Infect
Immun 1989; 57:291–294. - Saouda M, Wu W, Conran P, et al. Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin B enhances tissue damage
initiated by other Streptococcus pyogenes products. J Infect Dis 2001; 184:723–731. - Proft T, Sriskandan S, Yang L. Superantigens and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Emerg Infect
Dis 2003; 9:1211–1218. - Forni AL, Kaplan EL, Schlievert PM, et al. Clinical and microbiological characteristics of severe
group A Streptococcus infections and streptococcal toxic shock syndrome. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 21(2):
333–340. - Factor SH, Levine OS, Schwartz B, et al. Invasive group A streptococcal disease: risk factors for
adults. Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 8:970–977. - McCormick JK, Yarwood JM, Schlievert PM. Toxic shock syndrome and bacterial superantigens: an
update. Annu Rev Microbiol 2001; 55:77–104. - Darenberg J, So ̈derquist B, Normark BH. Differences in potency of intravenous polyspecific
immunoglobulin G against streptococcal and staphylococcal superantigens: implications for therapy
of toxic shock syndrome. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 38:836–842. - Stevens DL. Dilemmas in the treatment of invasive Streptococcus pyogenes infections. Clin Infect
Dis 2003; 37:341–343. - Eagle H. Experimental approach to the problem of treatment failure with penicillin. I. Group A
streptococcal infection in mice. Am J Med 1952; 13:389–399. - Stevens DL, Gibbons AE, Bergstrom R, et al. The Eagle effect revisited: efficacy of clindamycin,
erythromycin, and penicillin in the treatment of streptococcal myositis. J Infect Dis 1988; 158:
23–28. - Stevens DL, Yan S, Bryant AE. Penicillin-binding protein expression at different growth stages
determines penicillin efficacy in vitro and in vivo: an explanation for the inoculum effect. J Infect Dis
1993; 167:1401–1405. - Stevens DL, Bryant AE, Yan S. Invasive group A streptococcal infection: new concepts in antibiotic
treatment. Int J Antimicrob Agents 1994; 4:297–301.
320 Sharma and Saravolatz