social learning concept of locus of control (Phares,
1976; Rotter, 1966). As Rappaport (1977) notes:
What is important about this variable for
community psychology is its connection to
the sociological idea of power and its con-
verse, alienation. Locus of control is one of
the few variables in social science that may be
shown to have a consistent relationship that
ties research across levels of analysis. (p. 101)
For Rappaport (1981), a major goal of com-
munity psychology is the prevention of feelings of
powerlessness. It is not easy to accomplish this goal
ofempowerment, and community psychologists have
not been as conspicuously successful here as they
would have liked (Heller, 1990). Gesten and Jason
(1987) question whether any unique methods have
been developed out of the empowerment concept.
Still, Rappaport (1981) initially argued that strate-
gies to enhance people’s sense that they control
their own destinies are preferable even to preven-
tion or treatment approaches. Examples of attempts
to enhance feelings of control range from reducing
child and spouse abuse to eradicating exploitation
of women, migrant workers, and the elderly and to
decreasing bias against the disabled and the mentally
ill.
Although he initially pitted empowerment and
prevention approaches against each other, it appears
that Rappaport (1987) has tempered his position.
He now allows for the possibility that prevention
interventions may be consistent with (rather than
diametrically opposed to) empowerment. How-
ever, for this possibility to be realized, preventive
interventions must be collaborative and delivered in
a manner that avoids the paternalistic style that
characterizes some traditional therapist–client inter-
actions (Felner et al., 1983).
DiversityYet another important concept for community psy-
chology, and clinical psychology more generally, is
that ofdiversity. An understanding of and apprecia-
tion for human diversity are essential for community
psychologists (Trickett, 1996, 2009). Dalton et al.
(2001) present nine dimensions of human diversity
that should be considered.
■ Culture: Although difficult to define precisely,
culture is often considered to be norms or tra-
ditions that a society or group attempts to pass
along to younger generations or to immigrants.
■ Race: Although originally thought of in terms
of a biological variable, race is presently viewed
as a psychological or social variable based on
physical criteria.
■ Ethnicity: Ethnicity concerns one’s social iden-
tity, which is influenced by one’s ancestry,
culture of origin, or current culture.
■ Gender: It is useful to distinguish between sex
(a biological variable) and gender, which is a
socially constructed set of assumptions about
the behavior, attitudes, and roles of women and
men.
■ Sexual orientation: This involves sexual or
romantic attraction to one or both genders.
■ Ability/Disability: Humans differ in the degree
to which they suffer from mental or physical
disabilities.
■ Age: Biological age is important to consider
because different age groups have different
psychological and physical concerns, and the
aging process affects one’s relationships with
family members, communities, and institutions.
■ Socioeconomic status/Social class: Consideration of
social class is important because this dimension
of diversity influences identity, relationships,
educational and economic opportunities, as
well as other psychological variables.
■ Religion and spirituality: One’s search for mean-
ing in life relates to culture and ethnicity; it is
not possible to understand a culture without an
appreciation for the predominant modes of
religion and spirituality.
Community psychologists must develop cul-
tural competence and knowledge of human diver-
sity to plan and institute programs for communities.COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY 473