2 Parents: there is some evidence to suggest that increased parental permissiveness
and explicit communication between mothers and daughters about contraception
is related to contraception use (e.g. Herold and McNamee 1982).
3 Peers: increased contraceptive use relates to peer permissiveness and peer’s own
contraceptive behaviour (e.g. Herold 1981).Situational factors
Sheeran et al. (1991) have also argued that situational factors contribute to contra-
ceptive use, including:1 The spontaneity of sex: spontaneity is often given as a reason for not using contra-
ception (e.g. Holland et al. 1990b).
2 Substance use prior to sex: taking substances such as drugs or alcohol prior to sex
may relate to risky sex.
3 The accessibility of contraception: research has also examined whether easy
access to contraception both in general (i.e. the provision of condom machines in
pubs) and at the time of contemplating sex predicts contraception use (e.g. Gold et al.
1991).
Sheeran et al. (1991) argued that these different variables interact in order to predict
contraception use. They included interpersonal and situational factors as a means to
place the individual’s cognitions within the context of the relationship and the broader
social world. These variables can be applied individually or alternatively incorporated
into models. In particular, social cognition models emphasize cognitions about the
individual’s social world, particularly their normative beliefs. However, whether asking
an individual about the relationship really accesses the interaction between two people
is questionable. For example, is the belief that ‘I decided to go on the pill because I had
talked it over with my partner’ a statement describing the interaction between two
individuals, or is it one individual’s cognitions about that interaction?
Since the beginnings of the HIV/AIDS epidemic, sex as a risk has taken on a new
dimension – the dimension of chronic illness and death. Research into HIV and AIDS
preventive behaviour also illustrates the different ways of dealing with sex as an inter-
action. Although sometimes ignored, this research is also relevant to other sexually
transmitted diseases.SEX AS A RISK IN THE CONTEXT OF STDs/HIV AND AIDS
The HIV virus was identified in 1982 (see Chapter 14 for a discussion of HIV and AIDS).
Since then, health education programmes have changed in their approach to preventing
the spread of the virus. For example, early campaigns emphasized monogamy or at least
cutting down on the number of sexual partners. Campaigns also promoted non-
penetrative sex and suggested alternative ways to enjoy a sexual relationship. However,
more recent campaigns emphasize safe sex and using a condom. In fact, Reiss and Leik194 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY