PARTIES AND MOVEMENTS
UK websites
Campaign to Protect Rural England (http://www.cpre.org.uk/)
National Trust (http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/)
Royal Society for Nature Conservation (http://www.rsnc.org/)
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (http://www.rspb.org.uk/)USA websites
Defenders of Wildlife (http://www.defenders.org/)
Izaak Walton League of America (http://www.iwla.org/)
National Audubon Society (http://www.audubon.org/)
National Parks and Conservation Association (http://www.npca.org/)
National Wildlife Federation (http://www.nwf.org/)
Natural Resources Defense Council (http://www.nrdc.org/)
The Nature Conservancy (http://www.nature.org/)
Sierra Club (http://www.sierraclub.org/)
The Wilderness Society (http://www.wilderness.org/)NOTES
1 ‘Grassroots’ here refers to groups that are more bottom-up and decentralised,
and have fewer members and financial resources, than large mainstream
organisations.
2 Claims about the numbers of environmental organisations in individual
countries and their membership levels must be treated with caution, as
different studies have employed different methods of counting. See Dalton
(2005)onmembership density.
3 Although some writers, notably Lowe and Goyder ( 1983 ), distinguish different
phases within these broad waves.
4 See Duffy ( 2003 )for a detailed analysis of US environmental group activity, with
afocus on new methods of issue definition and agenda-setting, particularly in
the electoral process.
5 See Lamb ( 1996 )forahistoryofFriends of the Earth and Pearce ( 1991 )onthe
early Greenpeace.
6 Although an influential group, FoE now has a stagnant membership in the USA.
7 The significance of this threat was illustrated in August 1997 when BP obtained
alegalinjunction, backed by a freeze on Greenpeace assets, against a
Greenpeace direct action campaign that was obstructing BP oil exploration in
the North Atlantic.
8 Rootes ( 2003 )provides an exhaustive analysis of environmental protests in eight
European countries between 1988 and 1997, showing that, although there have
been fluctuations over time and between countries, environmental protest did
not consistently decline in this period, and in some countries it rose.
9 Monkey-wrenching was stimulated by the Edward Abbey novelThe Monkey Wrench
Gang.Seealso Foreman and Haywood ( 1985 ). Plows et al. ( 2004 )analyses the role
of ecotage in the UK direct action movement.
10 See Seeletal.( 2000 )and Doherty et al. ( 2003 )for coverage of the direct action
campaigns in the UK.