ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
producers and workers – especially in the South’ (European Fair Trade Asso-
ciation 2006 ). Whilst the explicitly environmental element may only involve,
say, a maximum level of a permitted pesticide, in practice many fair-trade
products, such as coffee, chocolate and bananas, are organically produced.
Small farmers are less likely to use pesticides on a large scale (as it is
not cost-effective) than are big producers, so simply by enabling the for-
mer to compete, fair trade is indirectly benefiting the environment. Caf ́e
Direct is a British scheme in which a group of ‘alternative’ trading organ-
isations, including Oxfam, Traidcraft and Twin, buy directly from farm-
ing organisations in less developed countries such as Nicaragua, with a
fixed minimum price, prepayment of orders and a commitment to a long-
termtrading partnership. Many of the producer co-operatives then invest
their profits directly in community development projects, such as new
schools. The success of several organic coffee blends has enabled Caf ́eDirect
toencourage and help several producers to shift to organically certified
farming.^5
Of course, equity is not an exclusively North–South concern. According
to the UNDP human poverty index,^6 from 7 per cent (Sweden) to almost
30 per cent (Italy) of the population in industrial countries is poor (UNDP
2005 : 230). Homelessness, unemployment and social exclusion are common
in rich nations too. Poor, socially deprived households are the least likely
to pursuesustainable consumption. The pressures of competitive spending
and conspicuous consumption in affluent societies exacerbate disparities
between rich and poor, encouraging poorer households to go deeper into
debt in their unsuccessful attempt to meet rising consumption standards,
thereby crowding out spending on food, education and health. Achieving
sustainable consumption will therefore involve both an overall readjustment
in the levels and patterns of consumption in rich countries and the provision
of basic needs to the socially excluded poor.
Thus the sustainable development paradigm, by emphasising the complex
links between social, economic, political and environmental factors, intro-
duces a new layer of dilemmas to the issue of equity and environment (as
illustrated by the controversial debate over trade in ivory outlined in Box8.5).
In so doing, it underlines how 1970s environmentalism misdiagnosed the
problem, with its narrow and inaccurate focus on economic growth, over-
population and nature protection.Democracy and participation
Sustainable development requires: a political system that secures effective
citizen participation in decision making... (WCED 1987 : 65)Sustainable development emphasises the importance of democracy and par-
ticipation in solving environmental problems. The traditional paradigm saw
no direct link between democracy and environmental problems, whereas
sustainable development holds that the achievement of intragenerational