Sustainable development and ecological modernisation(p. 277) is universally true. Despite efforts to redress the balance (Spaargaren
and van Vliet 2000 ;Spaargaren 2003 ), ecological modernisation theory has
given insufficient attention to the consumption side of the sustainability
equation.
Critical question 3
Is ecological modernisation only suitable for a handful of affluent
industrialised nations?
◗ Ecological modernisation in practice
This section offers some broad empirical observations about the role of
two key actors in the ecological modernisation discourse: the state and
industry.
The state
Despite the enthusiasm for it in some circles, there are still only a few policy
developments that clearly fit within the ecological modernisation frame-
work, most of which are concentrated in a handful of ‘pioneer’ nations
(Andersen and Liefferink1997a). Some political systems appear more open
toecological modernisation than others; in particular, it has taken root
most firmly in countries with policy styles containing significant corpo-
ratist traits, notably a culture of planning, intervention and nurturing a
close working relationship between the state and industry (Dryzek 2005 :
166–7). Where there is a corporatist tradition of seeking co-operative rela-
tions with powerful non-state interests, there may also be a willingness to
deal with emerging environmental and consumer groups. Thus the Norwe-
gian government ‘has expanded Norway’s traditional consensus-corporatist
style of policy-making into the environment field’ (Jansen and Mydske 1998 :
188; see also Dryzek etal. 2003 )bygradually including environmental
groups in most phases of the routine policy process. Sweden, where the
corporatist culture has also traditionally sought consensus, has intermit-
tently included environmental groups in planning and decision-making
(Lundqvist 2004 ). It is ironic that corporatist arrangements that were orig-
Corporatism:A system in which major
organised interests (traditionally, capital and
labour) work closely together within the
formal structures of government to formulate
and implement public policies.inally intended to maximise economic growth by
giving privileged access to business and trade
union groups have produced a consultative pol-
icy style that is relatively open to environmental
interests that challenge some of those expansionist
assumptions. Indeed, cross-national comparative
studies suggest thatcorporatismproduces better environmental outcomes
than pluralism (Crepaz 1995 ; Scruggs 2003 ).^13
In a comparative study of pollution control policy, Weale ( 1992 )showed
how German policymakers were more receptive to elements of ecological