Sustainable development and ecological modernisation4 The Fairtrade Labelling Organisation International (FLO) is responsible for
certification and standard-setting of the Fairtrade label. Global retail sales under
this label in 2004 exceeded US$1 billion (FLO Annual Report 2004 –5,
http://www.fairtrade.net/)..)
5 See http://www.cafedirect.co.uk/about/goldsupport.php (accessed 21 February
2006). By contrast, the Rainforest Alliance, a US conservation charity, runs a rival
certification scheme that emphasises ecological criteria, rather than equity
issues; in coffee production it focuses on the use of sustainable agricultural
practices, rather than providing a guaranteed price.
6 The UNDP Human Poverty Index, HPI-2, is a multidimensional composite
measure designed specifically for industrial countries, and is based on human
longevity, knowledge, standard of living and social exclusion (UNDP 2005 ).
7 See Wildavsky ( 1995 ,Conclusion) for a robust critique of the precautionary
principle.
8 Myers and Raffensperger ( 2005 )analyse the practical application of the
precautionary principle in US environmental policy. Christoforou ( 2004 )shows
that the precautionary principle has acquired constitutional status in many EU
states, but not in the USA. O’Riordan et al. ( 2001 )provide a range of perspectives
and examples.
9 Keyearly ecological modernisation studies include J ̈anicke ( 1991 ), Weale ( 1992 )
and Hajer ( 1995 ).
10 Mol ( 1996 )distinguishes two broad approaches within the ecological
modernisation discourse: one, those writers who regard (and promulgate)
ecological modernisation as a political programme for contemporary
environmental politics; two, environmental sociologists who have constructed a
social theory labelled ecological modernisation. The discussion here focuses on
the former; for the latter, see Spaargaren and Mol ( 1992 ).
11 Some proponents of ecological modernisation are persuaded by the notion of
an environmental Kuznets curve, which suggests that there is a direct
relationship between per capita income and environmental quality: as
income rises, environmental degradation will initially increase up to a point,
after which it declines. In short, economic growth is ultimately good for the
environment. For a critical discussion, see Arrow et al. ( 1995 )andSternetal.
(1996).
12 There are exceptions, notable Hajer ( 1995 ), who stresses the importance of
democracy.
13 See Hukkinen ( 1995 )foran alternative view.