Global environmental politics9.4 The Kyoto ProtocolThe 1997 Kyoto Protocol strengthens the UN
Framework Convention on Climate Change
agreed at Rio in 1992 by committing developed
countries (Annex 1) to reducing their collective
emissions of six key greenhouse gases (GHGs)
by at least 5 per cent below 1990 levels
throughout the 2008–12 period (which, in
effect, means 10 per cent below 2000 levels
and 30 per cent below what would be expected
in 2010 without emissions-control measures).Individual targets
GHG emissions todecreaseby:
8 per cent The EU, Switzerland, most central/
east European states
7 per cent USA
6 per cent Canada, Hungary, Japan, Poland
0 per cent Russia, New Zealand, Ukraine
GHG emissions toincreaseby:
1 per cent Norway
8 per cent Australia
10 per cent Iceland
The EU ‘bubble’ of 8 per cent contains wide
variations between member states: some richer
states have to make large reductions, e.g.
Denmark (21 per cent), Germany (21 per cent),UK (12.5 per cent); others merely need to
stabilise emissions, e.g. France and Finland;
while less developed members can increase
emissions, e.g. Portugal (27 per cent), Greece
(25 per cent), Spain (15 per cent) and Ireland
(13 per cent).
The Protocol also agreed three new flexibility
mechanisms to reduce the costs of reducing
emissions:
An international emissions trading regime
allowing industrialised countries to buy and
sell emission credits amongst themselves.
A Joint Implementation procedure enabling
industrialised countries to implement
projects that reduce emissions or remove
carbon in another Annex 1 country in
exchange for emission reduction credits.
A ‘clean development mechanism’
permitting developed countries to finance
emissions-reduction projects in developing
countries and receive credit for doing so.
Although the USA subsequently rejected the
Protocol, 178 countries managed to reach a
binding agreement for its implementation and
the Kyoto Protocol eventually came into force
on 16 February 2005.
See http://www.unfccc.de/of the USA (plus Australia and Canada and Japan) to agree greenhouse gas
reduction targets. Clearly, as the world’s largest producer of greenhouse gas
emissions, the inclusion of the USA in any regime is vital to its success. Yet,
while the EU and other industrialised nations pressed for quantified targets
throughout the negotiations, the US government was initially reluctant to
sign the Framework Convention at Rio and blocked agreement on targets
or timetables at Berlin. Before eventually agreeing toa7percentreduc-
tion target at Kyoto, the USA won significant concessions, including the
introduction of a tradeable permit system (see Chapter 12 )that would allow
rich polluting nations (i.e. the USA) effectively to buy the right to main-
tain high emission levels from countries emitting less than their target. The
main sticking point at the unsuccessful Hague Conference in 2000 was the