Body Dissatisfaction 111boundaries within the family and the existence of an enmeshed relation-
ship between mother and daughter may be important factors. Smith,
Mullis, and Hill (1995) suggested that a close relationship between mother
and daughter may result in an enmeshed relationship and problems
with separation in adolescence. Minuchin, Rosman, and Baker (1978) also
argued that although optimum autonomy does not mean breaking all
bonds between mother and daughter, mother–daughter relationships
which permit poor autonomy for both parties may be predictive of
future psychopathology. Similarly, Bruch (1974) stated that anorexia may
be a result of a child’s struggle to develop her own self-identity within a
mother–daughter dynamic which limits the daughter’s autonomy. Some
authors have also examined the relationship between autonomy, enmesh-
ment, and intimacy. For example, Smith, Mullis, and Hill (1995) argued
that an increased recognition of autonomy within the mother–daughter
relationship corresponds with a decrease in enmeshment and a resulting
increase in intimacy. It has also been suggested that such intimacy may be
reflected in a reduction in conflict and subsequent psychological problems
(Smith, Mullis, and Hill, 1995). The literature therefore highlights many
aspects of the mother–daughter relationship which may promote body
dissatisfaction. Ogden and Steward (2000) directly explored whether the
mother–daughter relationship was important in terms of a “modeling
hypothesis” (i.e., the mother is body dissatisfied and therefore the daughter
is too) or an “interactive hypothesis” (i.e., it is the relationship between
mother and daughter that is important). The study examined both the
mothers’ and the daughters’ own levels of body dissatisfaction and the
nature of the relationship between mother and daughter. The results
showed no support for the modeling hypothesis, but suggested that a
relationship in which mothers did not believe in either their own or their
daughter’s autonomy and showed a tendency to project their own expecta-
tions onto their daughters was more likely to result in daughters who
were dissatisfied with their bodies. In a similar vein, Baker, Whisman,
and Brownell (2000) examined associations between parent and child’s
weight-related attitudes and behaviors. The results showed little support
for the modeling hypothesis, but the authors highlighted a role for
perceived direct criticism from the mother as predictive of weight-loss
behaviors in the daughters. Further, Hanna and Bond (2006) explored the
role of family conflict and the perception of negative comments about
weight and shape from mothers to daughters. The results showed that
negative comments were a better predictor than family conflict of a